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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



KINGDOM OF GOD SERIES 



Studies in the development of the Kingdom of God, 
for use consecutively or as independent units. 



The Religion of Israel 

Twenty-six lessons. 

The Religion of Judah 

Twenty-six lessons. 

The Life of Jesus 

Twenty-six lessons. 

The Teachings of Jesus 

Twenty-six lessons. 



By John Bayne Ascham 



By John Bayne Ascham 



By Harris Franklin Rail 



By Harris Franklin Rail 



Apostles, Fathers, and Reformers 

By John Bayne Ascham 

Teacher's Manuals 

For each unit, ready or in preparation. 



KINGDOM OF GOD SERIES 

Edited by HENRY H. MBYER 

APOSTLES, FATHERS, 
AND REFORMERS 



BT 

JOHN BAYNE ASCHAM 




THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI 



C c i^Kj 



a 






Copyright, 1921, by 
JOHN BAYNE ASCHAM 



P C1 26/92/ 



Printed in the United States of America 



The Bible text used in this volume is taken from the American Standard 
Edition o£ the Revised Bible, copyright, 1901, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, and 
is used by permission. 



§>CI.A624983 



CONTENTS 

chapter page 

Introduction 7 

Author's Foreword 9 

Directions for Study 11 

I. The First Christian Community 13 

II. The First Christian Leaders 23 

III. In the Steps of a Touring Missionary 35 

IV. The Early-Christian Message 47 

V. The Church of the Circumcision 59 

VI. The Moral Problems of a Gentile Parish 72 

VII. Economic Problems of Early Christianity 86 

VIII. Christianity in Rome 98 

IX. The Churches of Asia Minor 112 

X. Christian Literature in the Apostolic Age 125 

XI. Church Organization in the Apostolic Age 139 

XII. Trials and Triumphs of the Apostolic Church . . 153 

XIII. Kingdom Movements of the Apostolic Age 167 

XIV. Christianity's Appeal for World Tolerance 181 

XV. The Ethical Task of Christianity 192 

XVI. Kingdom and Creed 205 

XVII. Kingdom and Church 217 

XVIII. Christianity's Appeal to Pagan Europe 229 

XIX. The Monastic Ideal of the Kingdom 241 

XX. Crusading for the Kingdom 253 

XXI. Daybreak in Different Lands 263 

XXII. Luther and the German Reformation 274 

XXIII. Calvin and the Huguenots 285 

XXIV. The English and Scottish Reformation 296 

XXV. The Puritan in England 308 

XXVI. The Protestant and the Roman-Catholic Ideal. . 319 

Index 331 



INTRODUCTION 
THE GEOWTH OP THE KINGDOM OP GOD 

Too often in human history the sharp contrast between 
actual conditions and the higher demands of the Christian 
ideal has discouraged those upon whom rested the respon- 
sibility for making that ideal real. A short-range view of 
life has obscured the actual growth of the Kingdom which 
the larger perspective of history reveals. In the face of the 
overwhelming preponderance of sin and selfishness in the 
world the Christian Church has again and again contented 
itself with snatching as many brands as possible from the 
burning, without, at the same time, seeking to organize 
the constructive forces of life and of society for the seem- 
ingly impossible task of putting out the conflagration. 
Thus the actual process of the Kingdom's coming among 
men has proceeded for the most part "without observation," 
like the first growth of the seed that has been buried in 
the soil. 

It is possible to-day, in the light of the completed records 
of the Old and New Testaments and the subsequent his- 
tory of the Christian centuries, to discover definite stages 
of advance with successive landmarks of progress in the 
gradual establishment of the reign of God in individual 
lives and in the institutions of mankind. Such a survey 
of progress already achieved should hearten the organized 
Christian forces in their forward look and their endeavor 
to establish still more firmly among men the principles and 
ideals of the Kingdom. It should encourage the individual 
to redouble his efforts and inspire in him an unfaltering 
confidence in the ultimate realization and triumph of God's 
rule. Herein lies the purpose of the special course of study 
in the development of the kingdom of God in which this 
volume constitutes one textbook. 



INTKODUCTION 

Beginning with a brief consideration of the fundamen- 
tals of religion and the nature of man and of Deity, the 
studies trace the development of religious experience and 
ideas among the Hebrews and the Jewish people down to 
the beginning of the Christian era. This early period, cov- 
ering the development of the Kingdom in Old Testament 
times, is presented in two volumes of twenty-six study chap- 
ters each, the division being made at the point in the his- 
torical development following the rise of eighth-century 
prophetism and the fall of Samaria. In similar manner 
two volumes are devoted to the Life and Teachings of Jesus 
which are assumed to be of central importance in the for- 
ward and upward movement of humanity. 

Subsequent studies present in two volumes a survey 
of the development of the Kingdom since the time of Christ, 
including a discussion of those social-religious movements 
of the present day, the support and inspiration for which 
are to be found primarily in the Christian conception of 
God and the world. This volume presents briefly the story 
of the Kingdom since the time of Christ, as this has de- 
veloped through the Christian centuries under the inspiring 
leadership of Apostles, Fathers and Reformers. The con- 
cluding volume of the series is entitled The Christian Hope, 
and presents in constructive form the abiding faith of the 
Christian fellowship in the final triumph of the kingdom 
of God. 

It is confidently expected that these studies will serve a 
two-fold purpose. As elective courses for adult Bible 
classes interested in this vital and most fascinationg of all 
studies, their usefulness will be unquestioned. At the same 
time they are intended to meet the increasing demand for 
modern textbooks written in scholarly spirit but popular 
style for preparatory and high schools and for advanced 
groups in week-day religious instruction in local parishes. 
That they are admirably suited for either purpose will be 
evident from an examination of any one of the volumes 
in the series. 

The Editor. 



AUTHOR'S FOREWORD 

This volume is devoted to a brief description of the chief 
incidents in the development of Christianity from the be- 
ginning of the church at Jerusalem to the close of the 
Reformation. 

A true history of the kingdom of God during these cen- 
turies would not be identical with the history of the 
church during the same period. 

"God moves in a mysterious way 
His wonders to perform." 

Undoubtedly there were influences not controlled by the 
church making for the Christianization of the world. The 
church, however, has been the chief agent in the propaga- 
tion of the gospel. Frequently unfaithful to its own con- 
science, often blind to the plain teachings of its Founder 
and Master, sometimes guilty of unpardonable crimes in 
the name of religion, the church has not advanced the 
cause of Christianity according either to its opportunities 
or its powers. Nevertheless, the church has been the chief 
promoter of God's kingdom in the life and affairs of men. 
It has been the chief institution to carry civilization 
onward. It filled the breach caused by the decay of the 
Roman Empire. It molded and guided the barbarism of 
the pagan invaders of the old seats of civilization and 
transformed them into Christian peoples. During many 
centuries it was the sole agency that kept alive the hope of 
the kingdom of God. 

It is only those who know the church at its best who 
should exercise the privilege of pointing out its faults. 
The historian is well aware of the merits and the defects of 
the church. The Christian historian understands that the 
failures of the church have arisen through want of loyalty 
to the teachings and the Spirit of its Lord. To point out 



AUTHOR'S FOREWORD 

the errors of the church is for him only another way of 
calling attention to the glories of the Christ. 

It is believed, then, that a clear understanding of the 
facts presented in this volume not only will make the 
student conversant with the outlines of church history of 
the first fifteen centuries of our era but will also clarify 
and strengthen his faith in the coming of God's kingdom 
and will better enable him to take some true part in the 
enthronement of Christ in the life and institutions of 
mankind. 



10 



DIRECTIONS FOR STUDY 

Read the chapter assigned for study without stopping 
to examine Biblical or other references. After having ob- 
tained a general idea of the contents and purposes of the 
chapter reread it more carefully. Examine all references. 
Do not be wearied by their multiplicity. It is only by 
repeated use of them that the material upon which these 
studies are based becomes familiar. One of the objectives 
of this book is to put the student in touch with the source 
material for a study of the rise and development of the 
church. 

Read as many as possible of the references given for read- 
ing. Examine these books. Become familiar with their 
appearance. Obtain a general idea of their contents. It is 
a fine achievement to be able to speak intelligently of infor- 
mational and thought-provoking books. 

Use a notebook. Make brief abstracts of your reading. 
Write answers to the questions for class discussion. Leave 
space to add such facts as may be brought out in the class 
hour. Writing compels a greater exactness than does an 
oral recitation. Learn to be exact. 

Bear in mind that this study of the founders and leaders 
of the church is designed to do more than familiarize you 
with the greater facts of the Kingdom's progress : it is in- 
tended also to quicken you to become a worthier citizen of 
the Kingdom. At the close of each chapter is a brief 
devotional application. Meditate upon the ideas there 
offered. Whatever noble thoughts or resolves they awaken 
in you record in your notebook. Your spiritual progress 
is as important as your intellectual development. 



11 



CHAPTER I 

THE FIRST CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY 

This chapter outlines the earliest steps in the beginnings 
of organized Christianity. The first disciples during the 
public ministry of Jesus were bound together by the rare 
personality of Jesus ; now they were held together not only 
by a consciousness of his invisible presence but also by a 
commanding sense of being participants with him in a 
great mission. They were his forerunners to prepare the 
way for his second advent to set up his kingdom in irre- 
sistible glory. Measured by their beliefs and conduct and 
by the great events that issued from their labors, these 
church-building Jews are the marvel of the ages. They 
are worthy of our deepest sympathetic interest in all they 
believed and did. 

The Risen Christ 

Reveals Himself to His Discouraged Disciples. — The im- 
mediate effect of the death of Jesus upon his disciples was 
to scatter them. This Jesus had predicted (Matthew 
26. 31). He had assumed that they would return to their 
homes in Galilee (Mark 14. 27, 28). Whatever were the 
manifestations of Jesus to his disciples in Jerusalem after 
his resurrection, these alone were not sufficient to convince 
them that death had not shorn him of his majestic leader- 
ship in the bringing in of the kingdom of God. Jesus, 
therefore, met his discouraged and crushed followers in 
some of the treasured haunts in Galilee and so assured 
them of his regnant Messiahship that they returned to 
Jerusalem full of faith in the triumph of the kingdom of 
their love and dreams (Matthew 28. 7, 16; Mark 16. 7; 
John 21. 1-23). 

Restores Their Confidence in Him and in Their Mission. 
— It is impossible to overstate the significance of the fact 

13 



ArOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

that in a little while after the crucifixion of Jesus his dis- 
ciples, who had fled, came together again in Jerusalem 
ready to proclaim that the death of Jesus had not ruined 
their Messianic beliefs and hopes. The death of Jesus had 
seemed the end of all their expectations. He seemed no 
longer the Redeemer of Israel (Luke 24. 21). His death, 
despite all Jesus had said about it, was unexpected; and 
whenever Jesus had spoken of rising from the dead, the 
disciples had not understood what he meant (Mark 9. 9, 
10, 31, 32; Luke 18. 32-34). Now they are bold in pro- 
claiming his resurrection. The rise of the church is the 
telling witness of our risen Lord, for it is inconceivable 
that the disciples would have returned to Jerusalem and 
begun to preach the gospel they had heard from Jesus 
and which they saw in his life and resurrection unless an 
unassailable conviction that he was alive controlled and 
inspired their lives. 

His Abiding Presence With the Disciples. — It is impor- 
tant to understand what conception these first disciples 
waiting in Jerusalem had of Jesus, and what their relation 
to him was. Acts 1. 6 ; 2. 22-24, 32-36 ; 3. 20, 21 give us 
material for determining what was the disciples' new con- 
ception of Jesus. Jesus was to them "a man approved 
by God" during the years that led up to his death. Is 
there any hint that the disciples regarded Jesus as the Mes- 
siah until after his death and resurrection ? The dominant 
idea they hold of Jesus after his resurrection is that he is 
indeed the Christ — that is, the Messiah of Jewish expecta- 
tions. Since the Messianic Kingdom had not yet appeared, 
in what way do the disciples conceive Jesus to be related in 
the meanwhile to this Kingdom ? See Acts 1. 11 ; 3. 20, 21. 
They do not think of Jesus as altogether enthroned in the 
heavens; he is also present with them, the authority for 
their preaching and the spiritual Comrade of their souls 
(Matthew 28. 18-20). 

The Task of the Disciples 

A Summons to Witness for Jesus. — The disciples, con- 
vinced by the resurrection and ascension of Jesus that he 

14 



THE FIKST CHKISTIAN COMMUNITY 

was indeed the Messiah, felt themselves summoned by him 
to proclaim that Messiahship and the nearness of the 
inauguration of the Messianic Kingdom. Great emphasis 
was put upon the resurrection (Acts 1. 22 ; 2. 24, 32) . The 
burden of this earliest preaching was that Jesus of Naz- 
areth, who was crucified, had been raised from the dead and 
exalted into heaven. This resurrection and exaltation are 
the striking proofs of his Messiahship. Examine Acts 
3. 19-21 carefully. It was believed that Jesus the Messiah 
was to abide in heaven until the dawn of the Messianic era, 
when God would send him to set up the Kingdom on earth. 
This time of restoration these earliest disciples thought was 
near at hand. Eepentance on the part of the Jewish world 
and a recognition of the crucified Jesus as the Messiah 
would precipitate the golden age. The prophet Joel was 
used to prove that the new age was at hand. The spiritual 
quickening of Pentecost was regarded as the fulfillment of 
Joel's prophecy (Joel 2. 28, 29). It is clear that Joel 
expected the outpouring of Jehovah's Spirit as one of the 
immediately preceding marks of the advent of the Mes- 
sianic Kingdom. Acts 1. 11 indicates the same expectation 
that the advent of the Messianic age is not far removed. 

A Summons to Win Jews to Belief in Messiahship of 
Jesus. — The disciples at this earliest date held almost the 
same views of the Kingdom as did their non-Christian 
brethren. The one difference was their belief that Jesus 
of Nazareth was indeed the Messiah. It became their 
supreme task to win a similar recognition for him from the 
Jewish world. Prevalent Jewish Messianism had no teach- 
ing about a suffering and dying Messiah. Therefore, in 
proclaiming Jesus to be the Christ the disciples sought to 
show that the Scriptures foretold that the Messiah must 
die. See Acts 3. 18; 4. 10-12, 28; 5. 30-32, 42; 8. 32-35. 
This is the only use made of the death of Jesus in this 
earliest preaching. Instead of something to be glorified 
and to be exalted into a primary place in a scheme of 
salvation, as later preaching treated the crucifixion, the 
death of Jesus was considered by these earliest disciples 
something to be explained away, a dire calamity that 

15 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

threatened belief in his Messiahship. In the first days of 
their grief at his death and their joy in his rising again 
the disciples had not come to the full consciousness either 
of the kingdom that Jesus actually proclaimed or of the 
relation that his life and death sustained to the realization 
of the Kingdom purposes of God. 

Pentecost 

Quickened by the Spirit of God. — The significant feature 
of the spiritual experience of Pentecost recorded in Acts 
2. 1-42 is the consciousness of the disciples that their souls 
have been quickened by the presence within them of the 
Spirit of the living God. The disciples felt themselves 
summoned to a heroic task. It was no slight undertaking 
to convince their countrymen that a crucified Nazarene 
had come forth from his grave to be the Messiah and to 
summon their brethren to acknowledge this Christhood of 
Jesus and, by repentant lives, make ready for the swift 
coming of the kingdom of God. To pursue this mission 
God himself must equip them. He poured forth into their 
lives his Spirit, until they possessed the vision and the 
power to proclaim their message. That is the soul of the 
Pentecostal experience. It was not the sound, not the light, 
not the ecstatic speech, which constituted Pentecost; it 
was the play of the eternal Soul upon the lives of these 
disciples, who such a little while before had fled in fear and 
despair, until now, in the face of those who had condemned 
Jesus, they are preaching that he must be acknowledged 
as Christ by faith, repentance, and baptism. 

The Meaning of the "Tongues." — In studying Acts 
2. 1-42 note precisely the external accompaniments of this 
outpouring of the Spirit of God. Sound like the rushing 
of a mighty wind; appearances of light like flames of fire 
upon each of the disciples ; and speech, not in the cus- 
tomary Aramaic, but in ecstatic, ejaculatory utterances, 
were the outward signs of an inward miracle. In the same 
or similar manner this form of utterance appeared later 
in the church. See especially 1 Corinthians 12. 10, 28, 30 ; 
14. 1-33. "The glossolalia in the Corinthian church oc- 

16 



THE FIRST CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY 

curred in the first glow of enthusiasm after conversion. It 
was not a speaking in foreign languages ; it was an act of 
self-devotion, an act of thanksgiving, praying, and singing 
by individuals who were wholly absorbed in communion 
with God and gave utterance to their feelings in broken, 
abrupt, rhapsodic, unintelligible word." "The Pentecostal 
glossolalia cannot have been essentially different." 1 

Life of the Primitive Disciples 

The First Days of the Primitive Church. — Try to form 
a picture of this glad springtime of the Christian Church. 
Eead again Acts 2. 41-47; 3. 1; 4. 19, 20, 23-26. Observe 
all that may be inferred about the rich fellowship of these 
first disciples. All who accepted Jesus as the Christ were 
baptized. This was the first sign of a new social bond 
uniting Christian believers. Such converts and brethren 
"continued steadfastly in the apostles' teaching and fellow- 
ship." They ate together, prayed together, spent much 
of the time together. It was a genuine brotherhood that 
the witnesses and preachers of Christ offered to those who 
accepted him as Lord. This fellowship was expressed in a 
very profound sense of stewardship of their possessions. 
They no longer looked upon house, field, or the little hoard 
kept for the necessities of old age, as their individual prop- 
erty. He who had possessions and goods sold them and 
shared the money freely with those of his brethren who were 
in need. Looking to the speedy advent of Christ, their 
souls were free from sordid cares, and property became to 
them something not to be owned but to be used. As the 
numbers of disciples increased, many made the apostles the 
custodians of the funds to be administered for the common 
good. The first months of this new age were quickened by 
a rare and glowing sense that men are brothers when they 
are truly men. 

The Growth of Religious Fellowship. — This fellowship 
was rooted in a quickened religious experience. It is a 
great thing to pray together. Note the fine fellowship ex- 



1 History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume I, pages 235-41. 

17 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

pressed in the prayer of Acts 4. 24-30. Such praying was 
a daily experience (Acts 2. 42). It grew out of the new 
fellowship and in turn drew the Christian believers into a 
closer bond. Together they celebrated the Supper of the 
Lord (Acts 2. 42, 46). Undoubtedly in those first days 
of high enthusiasm groups of Christians very frequently ate 
together, and all such common meals wore rich sanctity 
as they talked together, looked forward to the coming again 
of Jesus, and recalled the wonderful happenings of the 
earthly ministry of Jesus. The apostles were called upon 
to tell over and over all that Jesus had said and done, and 
many a splendid glorious hour was spent in hearing these 
personal witnesses repeat and enlarge this story. 

The Increase in Meaning and Value of Life. — Every 
student must feel the thrilling heightening of life within 
these early-Christian circles. Life suddenly was thrust 
full of meaning and value. These men and women were 
conscious of the presence of God in their lives. They had 
come into a great vision : they were the sharers of a mighty 
destiny. Life suddenly flung open before them a door into 
vast untraversed realms, and they were responding to its 
summons with unique spiritual exaltation and joy. It was 
an age of unparalleled gladness. All of life revealed the 
same exultation. Life had come to its own in them, and 
they broke free from earth's customary enthralling fears. 
They had won for themselves a new world. 

The Relation of the New Movement to Judaism 

The Messianic Hope Jewish. — Recall all that was said 
by Peter on the day of Pentecost, all that he said to the 
crowd in Solomon's Porch, all that he said to the San- 
hedrin, and the words of the prayer recorded in Acts 
4. 24-30, and decide whether or not the one outstanding 
demand of these witnesses of Jesus was that he should be 
recognized and acknowledged as Messiah. Keeping in 
mind that the Messianic hope was a Jewish hope, is it fair 
to say that these first Christians completely lived and 
thought within the boundaries of the Jewish world? In 
the light of Jesus' statement "Think not that I came to 

18 



THE FIRST CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY 

destroy the law or the prophets : I came not to destroy, but 
to fulfil," what part of Judaistic religious belief and prac- 
tice could these primitive Christians think was now set 
aside? Would the acknowledgment of Jesus as Messiah 
create in these men the feeling that they were at liberty 
to neglect any of the rites and ceremonies of Judaism? 
Jewish religious life at this time centered in the Temple 
and synagogue. Read Luke 24. 53; Acts 2. 46; 3. 1, 11; 
5. 42, and state what the attitude of the early Christians 
toward the Temple service was. The ninth hour (3 p. m.) 
was the time of the evening sacrifice. While the burnt 
offering was being sacrificed, the Levites accompanied its 
presentation with instrumental music and singing. At 
certain pauses in their music the assembled people were 
summoned to prayer by two priests with silver trumpets. 
It is not likely that these first Christians, certainly gathered 
from the more devout Jews, neglected any of the ordinary 
Jewish rites and ceremonies. During these first days, until 
persecution began to alienate the Christian community from 
their Jewish brethren, there is every reason to believe that 
discipleship with Christ led his followers not to a loosening 
of Jewish ties but to a more devout and earnest practice of 
Jewish ritual and law. 

The Messianic Office and Character of Jesus Emphasized, 
— The first Christians were Jews who had found in Jesus 
the long-dreamed-of Messiah. It was the Messianic office 
and character of Jesus which stood out in their thought 
of him in the first days of the church. It was only as time 
passed and they were thrown by the delay of his coming 
again more and more upon their memory of his words and 
deeds that they realized that his gospel had to burst its 
Jewish shell to live. 

Summaey: The Coming Kingdom 

The Kingdom Centers in Jesus. — These first days of the 
Christian Church settled once for all that the kingdom of 
God centers in Jesus. Within Jewish Christian circles 
Jesus has become the long-expected Messiah. This recogni- 
tion of his Messianic office and character stamps forever 

19 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

into Christian thought the fact that all Kingdom progress 
is vitally related to Jesus Christ. He lives ever afterward 
at the heart of every advance to inaugurate in human life 
the kingdom of God. 

Personal Religious Experience Essential. — Also, it was 
settled definitely that henceforth men and women with a 
passion for God's kingdom are uniquely conscious of God's 
presence in their lives. Whoever sets himself to a King- 
dom task may look confidently to the quickening of his life 
by the living God. We may not understand this mystery, 
but the fact remains that men do attain a rich spiritual 
heightening of life which is best accounted for by believing 
that God has in some fashion come into more than the first 
creative touch with their souls. 

Human Brotherhood an Actuality. — We see in these first 
(^ays of the church, too, that when the inner life comes to 
its own, human brotherhood becomes a rich actuality. When 
the stress upon property was lessened, the barriers fell 
between individuals, and the Christian believers experi- 
enced a rare communal life. However fleeting this ideal of 
fraternity, it points the way for greater triumphs of Chris- 
tian social solidarity. 

Highways to the Heart 

"It Is Not for You to Know Times or Seasons." — How 

we covet the details of God's providence for us ! Yet how 
little it would contribute to life to possess a blue print of 
the future ! To anticipate a sorrow or a burden is to double 
its load, and to calculate the hour of a joy's arrival is to 
miss the pleasure of its surprise. To know the day of the 
distant event would end in forgetting Him who orders all 
our lives. It is better to trust to God's guidance each day 
than to seek a survey of the far-off years. No palmister 
can pronounce upon the progress of the soul. 

"Ye Shall Receive Power." — What is the source of life's 
strength and joy? Is it wealth, rulership, or applause? 
Is it not the consciousness that life within us is not at the 
mercy of things without but, rather, is united to the spirit- 
ual source of the world's being — even to God? Is it hard 

20 



THE FIRST CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY 

to keep sweet, honest, or pure ? Is your Christian experi- 
ence a sad mixture of partial victory and much defeat? 
Do you stand at the threshold of Christian discipleship, 
not yet daring the great adventure ? Then remember that 
God is power and that he is knocking at every man's door. 
Give him the chance to dwell in your soul. 

"Ye Shall Be My Witnesses." — This is not a command 
but an opportunity to enter into life. It is the chance to be- 
come oneself. Only that which we can declare do we know. 
Many a man's ideals would flare the brighter were he to 
speak of them to others. Any man's Saviour would be the 
dearer and the greater were he to speak forth gladly what 
the church means to him. Every moral conviction is given 
power in speech. Be a personal evangelist and win a 
Kingdom. 

"Your Old Men Shall Dream Dreams." — Do you know of 
any greater triumph ? To come to the last years with hopes 
blazing like a June sunrise and soul afire with visions of 
Kingdom conquests is the finest of life's achievements. You 
who are crowned with age, cheer us with your "The best is 
yet to be." Keep your life open to God, and there shall 
be no end to the dreaming of your soul. To cease believing 
in a golden age makes the better day impossible. To see 
no waiting heaven takes the royal glow out of every day of 
earth. 

"They Began to Speak With Other Tongues."— We al- 
ways do so when God comes into our lives. We who spoke 
in anger now speak in love. We who used cruel words find 
gentle answers now. The impure now speak of purity, the 
vulgar know no more vulgarity, the man of lies finds truth 
a greater weapon, the social butterfly is no longer limited 
to vaudeville, cards, and dance for conversation material. 
The man once absorbed in business has found a livelier 
theme. Our common tongues never attract the crowd. 
When we begin to use the new tongues learned in a Spirit- 
filled life we have auditors. 

"Not One . . . Said That . . . Which He Possessed 
Was His Own. — Thirtieth-century wisdom at the begin- 
ning of the Christian age ! Will it take ten centuries more 

21 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

of war, competitive trade, heartless indifference to others' 
welfare, to learn the Christian lesson of brotherhood and 
stewardship ? God forbid. The world is sick of ownership 
as the expression of man's relation to property. Field and 
factory are to be used, not owned; to be put at the service 
of mankind, not to be possessed. No man has the moral 
right to say that the thing which he possesses is his own. 
He is God's steward. Stewardship of property — wealth 
held in trust for all men — is fundamental to any right and 
peaceful adjustment of our complex and often bitter and 
unjust social relations. Become God's steward and in rec- 
ognition of your stewardship set apart at least one tenth 
of your income for the propagation of the gospel of Christ. 

Suggestions foe Class Discussion 

1. Wherein lay the disciples' difficulty in seeing success in 
the death of Jesus? 

2. How were they influenced by the prevalent Jewish con- 
ception of the Kingdom? 

3. Show how the first weeks of the early church demon- 
strated that the coming Kingdom centers in Jesus. 

4. In what ways did the experiences of those days contrib- 
ute to the progress of the Kingdom? 

5. Why is a consciousness of God's presence in the life a 
necessary warrant for proclaiming a passion for the King- 
dom? 

6. Why was the new basis of fellowship among the believers 
enduring? 

7. Explain the circumstances which gave the communal life 
of the early church its impetus. 

8. How far are the forms of church government developed 
in those days binding on the church of to-day? 

9. What is the relationship between a man's religion and 
his material possessions? 

Reading References 

A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age, McGiffert, 
pages 37-81. 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 38-48. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume I, pages 
225-45. 

The Messianic Hope of the New Testament, Matthews, 
pages 137-50. 

22 



CHAPTER II 

THE FIRST CHRISTIAN LEADERS 

The spread of Christianity throughout Judaism and 
into the Gentile world was a social movement of extraor- 
dinary vitality and unusual significance. This great 
social movement, like others, had its leaders. The present 
chapter is a study of the three foremost leaders of earliest 
Christianity. 

Peter 

A leader and Spokesman. — Read again Acts, chapters 1 
to 4, and observe the prominence of Peter in the events 
that cluster around Pentecost. Only a few weeks before, 
Peter denied any knowledge of Jesus. What does his 
leadership in these first days witness to his native qualities 
of prompt thought and action? What evidence does this 
same situation offer of some unique experience with the 
risen Lord ? See 1 Corinthians 15. 5. State the occasions 
in these four chapters in which Peter appears the leader 
and spokesman of the early church. Examine Acts 5. 1-12, 
15, 29; 8. 14-25; 10. 1-48; 12. 1-4; 15. 6-12; Galatians 
1. 18; 2. 7. In all these references Peter appears as the 
foremost representative of the church at Jerusalem and of 
the Jewish Christianity that emanated from the labors of 
the apostles. It is Peter who suggests that a successor to 
Judas be appointed; he is the preacher of Pentecost; he 
performs the first miracle ; he proclaims the Christian faith 
in Solomon's Porch; he and John are the first to suffer 
persecution; he defends the new community before the 
Sanhedrin; he rebukes Ananias and Sapphira for their 
hypocrisy; he is the first choice of the apostles to inspect 
the spread of Christianity in Samaria ; he is the first of the 
apostles to see that Christianity is more than a Jewish 
sect; Paul visits him as the most representative of the 

23 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

apostles; Herod sentences him to death as the head of the 
Jerusalem church; and despite the presidency of James, 
Peter occupies the foremost place in the council of Jeru- 
salem. 

His Qualifications for Leadership. — What light is thrown 
upon this position of leadership by Matthew 16. 18, 19; 
Mark 16. 7; John 21. 15-17? Did Jesus choose Peter for 
his unique place of leadership in Jewish Christianity? 
What characteristics in Peter elevated him to this place of 
leadership ? Peter was born probably at Bethsaida, a fish- 
ing town at the northeast corner of the sea of Galilee. His 
father, Jonas, was a fisherman. At the time Jesus began 
his ministry Peter was married and living at Capernaum 
(Mark 1. 29) and with Andrew his brother engaged in the 
fishing industry. Before Jesus began his ministry Peter 
and Andrew had been stirred by the reform movement of 
John the Baptist and had followed the crowds to the Jordan 
and enrolled as John's disciples (John 1. 35-42). An uned- 
ucated peasant of Galilee (Acts 4. 13), a man of humble 
and laborious toil, there yet gleamed within his soul the 
Messianic dream; and once the assurance possessed him 
that the Messiah had come, Peter became the undaunted 
prophet of the new world order. 

His Leadership Based on Quick Spiritual Perception and 
Courageous Utterance. — There was a quick spiritual per- 
ception and a courageous utterance about Peter which 
conferred leadership upon him. He voiced the deathless 
devotion of the Twelve at the Capernaum synagogue (John 
6. 68) ; he was the first to feel the Messiahship of Jesus 
(Matthew 16. 16) ; he alone drew sword to protect his 
betrayed Master (John 18. 10) ; and he alone, alas! openly 
denied knowledge of Jesus. But he alone, also, impelled by 
his love and imperilled by his Galilean accent, ventured 
into the death-dealing trap of the high priest's residence. 
Vision, love, service, — are not these the elements of Peter's 
greatness? It was Peter who first awakened from bewil- 
derment and dismay over the crucifixion to proclaim Jesus 
still his people's Christ. He loved his Master devotedly. 
For him Peter had left all — home, family, and business, 

24 






THE FIEST CHEISTIAN LEADERS 

He became the great missionary of Jewish Christianity 
(Galatians 2. 7, 8) and a homeless wanderer for his Lord. 
During the last half of his life, a period of thirty years 
or more, Peter was a tireless evangelist, a leading figure, 
the chief apostle of the Christian Church in the Jewish 
world. 

His Later Years. — Little is known of these later years. 
At least once he set out alone upon a tour of evangelization 
and visited Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea. On some of his 
missionary tours he was accompanied by his wife (1 Corin- 
thians 9. 5). He was at Antioch (Galatians 2. 11) and 
may have been at Corinth. 1 The tradition that Peter 
labored for some time in Eome and there suffered martyr- 
dom is an early and frequently repeated statement of the 
church fathers of the first four Christian centuries. Peter 
was crucified probably by the orders of Nero. 

Stephen 

The New Office of Deacon.— Examine Acts 6. 1-7. Ob- 
serve that a new office is created in the church. What con- 
ditions required the appointment of "the seven"? What 
was their task? What qualifications were required in 
them? Observe the manner in which they were chosen and 
set apart for their task and (verse 7) state the result of 
their labors. 

Larger Than His Office. — Observe that two of these ap- 
pointees served a larger purpose than to oversee the equi- 
table distribution of Christian charity. This was, of course, 
no mean service in itself. The Grecian Jews were Jews 
from Greek-speaking provinces, who, through a temporary 
or permanent residence in Jerusalem, had come into con- 
tact with the rising Christianity. Palestinian Jews, who 
had not drifted for any reason into distant cities, felt 
themselves a little superior to their Greek brethren. It 
was therefore no trifling service to quiet these jealousies 
and to unite the whole Christian group into one harmonious 
life. Yet at least Stephen and Philip, who probably them- 

* Church History, Eusebius, Volume II, Chapter XXV; and 1 Corinthians 1. 12. 

25 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

selves were Hellenist Jews, felt called to add to their labors 
the sharing with the apostles of "the ministry of the word." 
Eead Acts 6. 8-10; 8. 5-13, and note that, with the one 
exception of "the laying on of hands," through which the 
Holy Spirit was given (Acts 8. 18), Stephen and Philip 
exercised all the functions of the Twelve. The fact that 
Stephen took upon himself this apostolic function was a 
declaration to the church that the gospel was more than a 
Jerusalem movement: it had in it the elements of uni- 
versal life. This is the first instance of independent action 
in the church: the first assurance that the risen Lord was 
intending that the propagation of his gospel was to be more 
than the privilege of an apostolic hierarchy. 

Preached in the Synagogue. — Like Paul, Stephen pro- 
claimed the gospel in the synagogue. His audiences were 
the Greek-speaking Jews (Acts 6. 8). We do not know 
the details of his message. But, like Peter, he must have 
preached that Jesus of Nazareth, crucified and raised from 
the dead, was the Messiah. Like the Twelve, he must 
have proclaimed the near approach of the Messianic King- 
dom. Unlike the apostles, he must have stressed the rela- 
tive unimportance of the Temple and the law. Jesus had 
predicted a destruction of the Temple (Matthew 24. 2), 
and his disciples had interpreted this to mean that in the 
Messianic Kingdom there would be no use for the Temple 
(Matthew 24. 3). The proclamation that Jesus of Naz- 
areth was the Messiah had aroused little or no antagonism 
up to this time. Some new element was introduced into 
the gospel preaching by Stephen. It is quite likely that he, 
catching more of the spiritual message of Jesus than the 
apostolic preaching had grasped, was beginning to em- 
phasize its freedom from Jewish ritual. This new emphasis 
aroused the hostility of the Jews. 

The Charges Against Stephen. — Note the charges against 
Stephen (Acts 6. 13, 14). Eead closely Stephen's address 
and determine whether Stephen denies the accusation that 
he had preached a destruction of the Temple and an abro- 
gation of Jewish law. Two divergent views are held con- 
cerning this address: (1) Stephen seeks to prove that he 

28 



THE FIRST CHRISTIAN LEADERS 

and his fellow Christians have shown no disrespect to the 
Temple and the law, but, on the contrary, his accusers and 
all non-Christian Jews of the day are the real violators of 
God's ordinances; (2) Stephen virtually accepts the truth 
of the accusation and seeks to show, especially in regard 
to the Temple, that neither in the past nor in the Messianic 
Kingdom are the Temple and its ritual an expression of 
God's will. 

Two Interpretations of Stephen's Address. — (1) If the 
first interpretation is accepted, the following is Stephen's 
argument: Israel's history is a history of unbelief, igno- 
rance, and opposition to the will of God. The Hebrews (a) 
refused to follow the leadership of Moses, who sought to 
lead them from Egypt into Canaan, their true home (Acts 
7. 24-28) ; (b) refused to obey Moses at Sinai, were deter- 
mined to return to Egypt; besought Aaron for gods (Acts 
7. 39-43) ; killed the prophets who predicted the Messianic 
age (Acts 7. 52) ; at last Israel has put to death the Right- 
eous One, the one who really fulfilled the law. (2) If 
the second view is followed, this history of rebellion cli- 
maxes in the building of the Temple, an act unauthorized 
by God (Acts 7. 47-50). If Stephen was now attempting 
to cast doubt upon the Temple and its ritual as divinely 
ordained, he had arrived at a view of Judaism wherein, 
perceiving the incidental and temporary character of Tem- 
ple worship and Mosaic law, he became the glorious fore- 
runner of Paul in discerning the equality of Jew and 
Gentile in the church of God. Surely both of these views 
may have been held by Stephen. Undoubtedly he felt that 
his accusers were disloyal to the will of God (Acts 7. 41) ; 
and he may have felt truly that the kingdom that Jesus pro- 
claimed was a far more spiritual and universal rule than 
current Judaism desired in its Messianic longing. Stephen 
thus becomes a notable figure in the apostolic church and 
occupies a significant post in the developing kingdom of 
God. 

Stephen's Death the Beginning of the Persecution of 
the Christians. — The successful silencing of Stephen was 
the beginning of an attack upon the Christians which scat- 

27 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

tered them far and wide. The first preaching in Samaria 
(Acts 8. 4-35) and Philip's preaching in some of the coast 
towns (Acts 8. 40) are incidents typical of the general 
spread of Christianity at this period. Lydda, Joppa, 
Phoenician coast towns, and Antioch and Cyprus also cer- 
tainly were reached at this time. 

Paul 

His Birthplace and Roman Citizenship. — Paul was born 
at Tarsus, an important city of Cilicia in Asia Minor. 
Paul's boast about his birthplace is well founded (Acts 
21. 39). Strabo, who visited Tarsus at about the time 
Paul was born, speaks in highest praise of the city's polit- 
ical and intellectual life. This writer states that Tarsus 
furnished a Stoic philospher for the household of Marcus 
Cato and another who was the preceptor of Augustus 
Caesar; and, after giving a list of Tarsian grammarians, 
philosophers, and poets, he continues, "Borne is best able 
to inform us what number of learned men this city has 
produced, for it is filled with persons from Tarsus and 
Alexandria." Tarsus also was a center for the manu- 
facture of goat's-hair fabric, famed for durability. From 
such cloth were made shoes, mats, tents, .and coverings of 
all kinds. Tarsus, from the year 171 b. c v was preemi- 
nently a Greek city. Politically it was a city-state. It gov- 
erned itself through its own elective magistrates and issued 
its own coins. Greek was the prevailing language. In 
47 b. c. Julius Caeesar visited Tarsus, and in 42 it 
was given the status of a free city of the empire by An- 
tony, 2 who resided here some time. Numerous Jews were 
to be found in Tarsus for nearly two centuries before the 
birth of Paul. Paul was a citizen of Tarsus (Acts 21. 39). 
His ancestors were probably Tarsian citizens from 171 
b. c. ; and when the city became a part of the empire, this 
citizenship, achieved under Greek rule, was recognized by 
Eome. Bead Acts 16. 37-39; 22. 24-29; 23. 26-30; 28. 19, 
and state the value of Eoman citizenship to Paul. 

2 See Plutarch's Life of Antony for a description of the famous meeting of 
Cleopatra and Antony at Tarsus. 

28 



THE FIRST CHRISTIAN LEADERS 

Primarily a Jew. — Although Paul lived in a Greek city 
and shared the dignity and privileges of Roman citizen- 
ship he was primarily a Jew. His parents were strict Jews. 
Examine Philippians 3. 5, 6; Galatians 1. 13, 14; Romans 
11. 1; Acts 22. 3; 26. 9-11, and state fully the evidence 
for Paul's Jewish ancestry, education, ideals, sympathies, 
and life purposes. Paul's life was dominated preeminently 
by his Jewish blood and education. Even after he long had 
been committed to his Gentilic ministry, the currents of 
Jewish sympathy ran deep in his nature (Romans 3. 1, 2; 
9. 4, 5; 11. 13-28). Almost nothing is known of Paul's 
family. The devoutness of his parents early urged them to 
give Paul the best possible Jewish education. He was sent 
to Jerusalem, where at this time his married sister may 
have been living (Acts 23. 16). He spent several years in 
Jerusalem and was trained in the school of Gamaliel. 
Read Acts 5. 34-39 for an indication of the character and 
position of Gamaliel. Such teachers in Jerusalem usually 
met their pupils in the courts of the Temple. The instruc- 
tion in such a school consisted of passages from the written 
law with their traditional oral interpretations. These were 
committed to memory. A well-trained student could keep 
faithfully in memory many thousands of these decisions. 
Since the scribes — students whose fitness to teach was 
vouched for by a rabbi — were frequently members of courts 
or were consulted by courts concerning the administration 
of law, Paul no doubt remained in the school of Gamaliel 
until he was recognized as a teacher. See Acts 7. 58 ; 8. 1 ; 
26. 10; Galatians 1. 14. 

His Zeal for Judaism. — Examine Acts 7. 58; 8. 1-3; 
9. 13; 26. 9-11; Galatians 1. 13. Paul voted for Stephen's 
death and was a close witness of his martyrdom. It is not 
improbable that he was one of those who disputed with 
Stephen in the synagogue of the Cilicians (Acts 6. 9). He 
could not brook the spiritual and universal elements of 
religion fundamentally inimical to Jewish doctrine. Ap- 
parently he devoted his life to stamping out the new sect. 
Paul had a prominent part in the persecution that followed 
Stephen's death (Acts 8. 3j Galatians 1. 13). He arrested 

29 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

Christians in their homes, dragged them to the synagogues 
for punishment, strove to make them blaspheme, im- 
prisoned both men and women, and voted for their death. 
After the church in Jerusalem was wasted, he was commis- 
sioned by the Jewish authorities to pursue the scattered 
Christians to distant cities and to bring to Jerusalem for 
punishment those whom he apprehended. The fear of Paul 
had traveled to Damascus (Acts 9. 13) ; and after Paul's 
activities ceased, the Christians were able to travel unmo- 
lested (Acts 9.31). 

His Conversion. — Paul's change from an ardent perse- 
cuting Pharisee into a bold and tireless advocate of Jesus 
Christ is one of the world's most remarkable transforma- 
tions. Galatians 1. 13-17 is the earliest written account 
of this striking reversal of Paul's life. This account is 
limited to the essential statement that God revealed his 
Son in Paul. That is, Jesus, the crucified leader of the 
Christians, is indeed the Messiah and God's own Son, and 
this Christ of heaven has entered into Paul's own life, so 
that he no longer seems to live, but Christ himself lives in 
him. "I have been crucified with Christ ; and it is no longer 
I that live, but Christ liveth in me" (Galatians 2. 20). 
This wonderful and glorious change in Paul's life took 
place near Damascus. The story of his experience is told 
three times in Acts (9. 1-9; 22. 6-16; 26. 12-18; see also 
1 Corinthians 9. 1; 15. 8). 

His New Apprehension of the Will of God. — Eecall the 
various references to Paul's life and observe that Paul 
was not conscious of evil living before his conversion. He 
was no more zealous for God and righteousness after this 
revolutionary change of his life than he was before; but 
he now apprehended better the will and purposes of God. 
Paul's conversion involved at least the entrance into his 
life of new elements, partly intellectual, partly mystical: 
(1) He was convinced that Jesus was risen from the dead 
(1 Corinthians 9. 1; 15. 8, 15) ; (2) he now held the unas- 
sailable conviction that the crucified Jesus of Nazareth is 
indeed the Christ — that is, the Messiah (1 Corinthians 1. 
23; Galatians 2. 20) and the Son of God (Galatians 1. 16) ; 

30 






THE FIEST CHKISTIAN LEADEKS 

(3) the assurance that the most rigorous observance of 
Jewish law did not satisfy an earnest soul's craving for 
righteousness and holiness (Galatians 2. 19; Komans 7. 
7-25; 8. 1-3) ; (4) the experience of a new, wonderful life 
mediated to him by the presence of Christ within him 
(Galatians 2. 20; Komans 8. 9-11; Colossians 3. 1-4); 
(5) the belief that it had been God's purpose in his birth 
and now in his conversion to send him forth into Gentile 
lands as the apostle of Jesus Christ (Galatians 1. 15, 16; 
Acts 26. 16-18). 

His Further Preparation. — Examine carefully Acts 9. 
18-30; 11. 25, 26; 15. 41; Galatians 1. 16-19. These 
verses permit the following reconstruction of the next four- 
teen years of Paul's life. After his baptism by Ananias 
in Damascus, he tarried a short time in the city and told 
in the synagogue his wonderful experience. Then he with- 
drew into Arabia. This period of seclusion lasted between 
two and three years. Eeturning to Damascus, he pro- 
claimed boldly the Christ, and then, to escape a Jewish 
plot, was lowered from the city wall. Paul then went to 
Jerusalem, where he met a few of the disciples and visited 
Peter fifteen days. During this brief visit he proclaimed 
the Christian faith, especially to the Greek-speaking Jews. 
Withdrawing from Jerusalem on learning of a plot to kill 
him, he first went to Antioch and then returned to his boy- 
hood home in Tarsus. It was probably at this time that 
he learned the trade of tentmaking. He also preached the 
gospel through the province of Cilicia, of which Tarsus was 
the capital. Some ten years were spent in this manner. 
Then he returned to Antioch in the company of Barnabas. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

The Beginning of the Break Between Judaism and 
Christianity. — This lesson outlines the outstanding events 
and personalities of the first fifteen or sixteen years of the 
Christian Church. We see the beginning of the break be- 
tween Judaism and Christianity. It grows apparent to 
men like Stephen and Paul that the kingdom of God is too 
spiritual and too universal to be a Jewish sect only. It was 

31 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

more democratic than the first disciples were aware. The 
vitality of the Christian experience was quickened by perse- 
cution as well as the area of its influence widened. Suffer- 
ing itself breathes a democratic atmosphere. Nothing more 
useful could have happened to the early church to draw the 
Christian community closer together and, by alienating it 
from the strictest Judaism, to enlarge its sympathy for 
the Gentile world. 

The Significance in Kingdom Development of Individ- 
uals Mastered by God and Directed by His Will. — The 
change in Peter and, much more strikingly, in Paul wit- 
nesses to the marvelous transformation wrought in a man's 
interests by a consciousness of God. Intellectual habits and 
conceptions, range of emotional experiences, intensity of 
loyalties, life's ideals and values, — what expansion and 
energizing are given them when men hold conscious com- 
munion with the living God! This study of these three 
leaders settles the significance in Kingdom development 
of individuals mastered by God and directed by his will. 

The Windows of the Soul 

"We Cannot but Speak the Things We Saw and Heard." 

— Nothing can check the impulsion of a great spiritual ex- 
perience. This is a radiant glory of the early Christians. 
They knew the risen Lord. Such knowledge was too won- 
derful to be silenced even by threatening authorities. Oh, 
that the day of great spiritual fellowship with God shall 
come to the modern church! What a host of courageous, 
outspoken, spiritually minded, Christ-devoted disciples does 
our world need to-day ! We moderns can be silenced by a 
sneer. Our testimony is too feebly uttered to reach our 
nearest business and social associate. To how many of 
your nearest acquaintances have you ever presented the 
claims of Christ and witnessed to the reality of his mastery 
by warm and earnest words ? May God forgive your cow- 
ardly silences in the face of so much need of positive cer- 
tain testimony. 

"I See the Heavens Opened." — The sky is never a brazen 

32 









THE FIRST CHRISTIAN LEADERS 

blank to a great soul. God is never at the far ends of 
the world when he is sought even by his least child. Ste- 
phen, Peter, Philip, Paul, each in his own way, saw God 
break through the barriers of the visible to stand at his side. 
It was this vision and this experience which exalted them 
into leadership. In the long run the world will have no 
other leaders. He alone who sees the invisible can lead us 
along the tangled paths of our tangible, visible world. 
They who know the spiritual highways become earth's safest 
guides. 

"They That Were Scattered Abroad Went Preaching." 
— The best way to give life to truth is to kill it. If the 
servants of the Kingdom never had been stoned, burned, 
beheaded, and exiled, it would never have triumphed. It 
is the cause for which we dare all that lives. 

"No Mean City." — Tarsus had evils enough to gloom the 
hardiest optimist. But it had good in it too. It had pro- 
tected the Jew for two hundred years. It was an educa- 
tional center. It gave citizenship to men of every race. 
Paul's citizenship was no slight advantage to his ministry. 
Paul used his civic rights to advance the kingdom of God. 
No city is mean in opportunities for good. In the modern 
city suppose a follower of Christ were tremendously in 
earnest to make Christian truth alive: what a wealth of 
open doors in the manifold social contacts of a city's life 
would invite his individual ministry! The very closeness 
of men gives the ardent positive Christian endless chances 
to advance the kingdom of God. 

"I Was Not Disobedient to the Heavenly Vision." — This 
is the vast difference between men : some obey the call of the 
larger truth, some cling to the old path. To all there come 
flashing revelations of grander life. God does not with- 
hold visions of the ought-to-be from any soul. But these 
radiant gleamings of nobler life call us from something 
grown dear, and we have not within us the spirit of adven- 
ture. It is a tragic thing to disobey a spiritual prompting 
to holier life. Life never is quite so real after the slightest 
denial of a heavenly summons. Shadows begin to close in 
on the man who makes a start at disobeying God. 

33 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What do we know about Peter's life and occupation? 

2. Give the reasons for Peter's leadership in the Jerusa- 
lem church. 

3. What is the value of Peter's contribution to the Christian 
Church? 

4. To what extent did Peter understand that Christianity 
was more than a Jewish sect? 

5. What was his connection with the Christian Church at 
Rome? 

6. Discuss the work of a deacon in the early church and 
show how such an office became necessary. 

7. Outline Stephen's address of defense before the San- 
hedrin. 

8. Point out the significance of the statements that caused 
his death. 

9. How did the death of Stephen influence the orthodox 
Jews in their attitude toward the Christians? 

10. Discuss Paul's birth and early training. Describe his 
boyhood. Tell what is known of his family. 

11. How much did Tarsian life influence Paul's character 
and career? In what way? 

12. What part did honest conviction have in Paul's perse- 
cution of the early Christians? in his conversion? 

13. What new elements of the understanding of God's will 
and personal religious experience did Paul have after his 
conversion? 

14. Where and how did Paul spend the time between his 
conversion and the beginning of his work at Antioch? 

15. Discuss the events that brought about the beginning of 
the break between Judaism and Christianity. 

16. What did this break mean for the progress of the 
Kingdom? 

Suggested Readings 

A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age, McGiffert, 
pages 64-81, 85-93, 113-50. 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 48-68. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume 1, pages 
247-56, 286-303. 

Articles "Peter," "Stephen," and "Paul" in A Dictionary of 
the Apostolic Church, Hastings. 



34 



CHAPTEE III 

IN THE STEPS OF A TOUKING MISSIONARY 

The expansion of Christianity territorially beyond Jeru- 
salem could end only in its crossing the boundaries of 
Judaism. Men of Cyprus and Cyrene, driven from Jerusa- 
lem by the persecution following the death of Stephen, on 
coming to Antioch preached to non- Jews with marked suc- 
cess. It was to this growing Jewish-Gentile church that 
Barnabas brought Paul from Tarsus (Acts 11. 20-26), and 
there he labored for a full year. It was this church that 
more than any other stood upon the frontier between the 
two great divisions of the church resulting from Paul's 
mission to the Gentiles. Erom this frontier church, where 
the disciples of Jesus, no doubt in derision, were first called 
Christians, Paul set forth on those great tours which revo- 
lutionized the world. This chapter presents the first and 
the major portion of the second journey of Paul and nar- 
rates his advance into Galatia, Macedonia, and Greece. 

The Advance Into Cyprus and Galatia 

Paul's New Commission. — Eead Acts 13. 1-4. To Paul 
and four others in the Antiochian church who were prophets 
and teachers the word of the Lord had come, and they 
were commissioned by that revelation to utter his messages. 
At first the apostles were the only authorized teachers 
whose instruction was the basis of church faith and unity. 
As Christianity spread, other devout and capable men be- 
came the recognized instructors of new converts. Paul 
had spent a year in preaching and teaching at Antioch but 
he had not forgotten the mission to which he felt his con- 
version called him. 

At Cyprus.— Eead Acts 13. 5-12. Note the details of this 
first venture, the port of departure, the landing at Cyprus, 

35 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

the members in the party, and the nature of the work in 
Cyprus. Observe that they "proclaimed the word of God" 
in the synagogues of Salamis. There were at this time 
many Jews in the island. Barnabas himself was a Cyprian. 
The road to Paphos, a distance of one hundred miles, lay 
through a fertile country and numerous towns. But they 
seem to have passed through the island without further 
preaching until they arrived at Paphos, the capital. No 
doubt here the missionaries spoke first in the synagogue. 
When rumor of them was noised abroad, they were sum- 
moned by Sergius Paulus, the proconsul, to court. Being 
"a man of understanding," he was desirous of hearing these 
men whom he took for traveling philosophers. This was 
the first presentation of the gospel before the Roman aris- 
tocracy and authorities. Its favorable reception by the pro- 
consul evidently quickened the desire of Paul to press on to 
the center of Roman life and authority. 

At Antioch in Galatia. — Read Acts 13. 13-52. It is not 
known what motives led them from Perga to Antioch. It 
has been conjectured that Mark left Paul and Barnabas 
at Perga because at this point some striking change of orig- 
inal plans occurred. Read Galatians 4. 13 and observe that 
to some illness of Paul the Galatians owed his missionary 
labors among them. Ramsay 1 conjectures that this illness 
was malarial fever, whose germs, implanted in his system 
on these Pamphilian lowlands about Perga, became his 
"thorn in the flesh" to torment him by recurring attacks 
throughout his life. To get away from the sickly coast 
Paul journeyed to Antioch, situated ninety miles inland 
on a southern spur of the lofty Sultan Dagh Mountains. 
It has been suggested also that, instead of evangelizing 
the coast towns of Pamphilia and Cilicia, the ambition of 
Paul to present the gospel in the great provincial centers 
of the empire having been fired by his interview with Ser- 
gius Paulus, the original plan was abandoned, and the mis- 
sionaries struck north over the Taurus Mountains to reach, 
by way of Antioch, the great highway running westward 



1 St. Paid the Traveler, page 93. 

36 



A TOUEING MISSIONAEY 

through Asia Minor to Ephesus. At Antioch, because 
Paul was stricken with illness, this ambition was frus- 
trated for the time. Is not this latter view more in har- 
mony with one's general impression of the genius of Paul ? 

To the Synagogue First. — Here again the missionaries 
turn first to the synagogue. What insight is here given into 
the services of the synagogue ? Eead Paul's address atten- 
tively and note that he spoke to Jews and to Gentiles who 
were accustomed to worship with Jews. Numerous women 
of prominence in the city (Acts 13. 50) were in his audi- 
ence. Observe that he (1) reviews the history of the 
Jews (Acts 13. 17-25), (2) proclaims that the crucified 
Jesus has been raised from the dead and become Israel's 
Saviour and Messiah, and (3) offers remission of sins and 
justification before God. What was the effect of this ad- 
dress? What statements in this address would be likely 
to alienate and offend his Jewish auditors ? to win Gentiles ? 
A week passed during which Paul and Barnabas con- 
versed with many Jews and Gentiles, so that on the next 
Sabbath the synagogue was packed with curious and eager 
listeners. After Paul had spoken at considerable length 
on the same subject as on the previous Sabbath, 
the Jews, disaffected and resentful, sought to con- 
tradict and minimize the message. This antagonism 
emboldened the speakers to point out that their con- 
duct not only shut them out of the Kingdom but impelled 
"Christ's messengers" to offer freely the Messianic gospel 
to the Gentiles. What attitude was taken toward his 
preaching by the Gentiles? Acts 13. 49 implies an ex- 
tended period of evangelization in the city and community. 
This prospering of the gospel finally aroused such Jewish 
hostility that either the city officials were induced to perse- 
cute the missionaries by imprisonment, or the Jewish syna- 
gogue authorities may themselves have punished him with 
"forty stripes save one" (Timothy 3. 11; 2 Corinthians 11. 
24). Finally they were forced to leave the city. 

Preaching at Iconium. — Eead Acts 14. 1-7. Iconium was 
a small town, well built, situated in the midst of a tract 
of land more fertile than the usual mountainous plains of 

37 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Lycaonia. This city was eighty miles southeast of Antioch, 
but lying within the Roman province of Lycaonia. It owed 
its importance in Paul's day largely to its location near the 
great highway running from Ephesus to the headwaters 
of the Euphrates and upon the road branching from this 
highway which extended southeastward through the Cilician 
gates to Antioch in Syria. The older inhabitants were 
Phrygian, but the city's importance drew to it Roman 
officials and traders as well as Jewish merchants. Here 
at Iconium, as in the other cities, the gospel was 
first presented in the synagogue, where both Jews and de- 
vout Gentiles heard the message. While a numerous body 
of Jews accepted the message, the rulers of the synagogue, 
custodians of Jewish law, traditions, and customs, saw 
clearly the inevitable destruction of Jewish worship in- 
volved in this missionary propaganda. But their perse- 
cution of Paul and Barnabas accomplished nothing for a 
long time. Later the Jews were able to stir up a second 
persecution, in the midst of which Paul and Barnabas fled 
to Lystra. An interesting tradition is preserved of this 
persecution in the apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla, 
written in the second century. Thecla belonged to one of 
the chief families of Iconium and was affianced to Thamy- 
ris, an aristocratic youth of the city. Thecla, having heard 
Paul preach, was inspired by a great devotion to him and 
to the gospel. She refused to carry out her marriage 
engagement and proposed remaining a virgin in order to 
devote herself to Christian service. Thamyris and the 
mother of Thecla had both Paul and Thecla brought before 
the magistrates. Paul was beaten and expelled from the 
city. Thecla was condemned to be burned in the theater, 
but she was miraculously preserved by a sudden downpour 
of rain. The story at least exhibits a constant feature of 
the early persecution of Christians by the Gentiles. They 
were condemned chiefly because their beliefs compelled a 
direct break with so much of social life. 

At Lystra. — Read Acts 14. 8-20.. Driven from Iconium, 
the missionaries passed on to Lystra, eighteen miles dis- 
tant, following the great highway toward the Cilician gates, 

38 



A TOURING MISSIONARY 

the mountain pass through the Taurus range. Lystra, 
though a smaller city than Iconium or Antioch, was, how- 
ever, a Eoman colony. Apparently there was no synagogue 
in Lystra and, consequently, few Jews. There was one 
family, the wife or perhaps the widow of which Paul 
learned to know intimately. Eunice, a Jewess, married to 
a Greek, was a devout woman (Acts 16. 1 ; 2 Timothy 1. 5), 
and it is not unlikely that Paul and Barnabas were guests 
in her home. Eunice became a Christian at this time (Acts 
16. 1). The missionaries were compelled here for the first 
time, in presenting the gospel, to make a direct appeal to 
pagan Gentiles. Read carefully the story of the healing of the 
lame man. This miracle of healing aroused the enthusiasm 
and confidence of the populace as the preaching itself had 
not done. The priests of the god "Zeus Before the City" 2 
brought materials for a special sacrifice in the honor of Paul 
and Barnabas. Note the primitive character of this com- 
munity. At Athens or Corinth, civilized centers of the 
Greek and Roman world, the old religion was so under- 
mined by skepticism that such a scene as was enacted at 
Lystra would have been impossible. Observe (Acts 14. 14) 
the symbol of distress and condemnation in the presence 
of an act of sacrilege. Read attentively the address by 
which Paul stopped the sacrifice and quieted the multitude. 
Not long afterward Jews from Antioch and Iconium, hear- 
ing of PauFs successes, came to Lystra. While they were 
tarrying and teaching, there came certain Jews from 
Iconium and Antioch ; and as they were disputing publicly, 
they persuaded the multitudes to withdraw from them, say- 
ing that nothing they said is true, but all false; and they 
stirred up the multitudes and "stoned Paul and dragged 
him out of the city, supposing that he was dead." The 
Christian disciples followed the brutal mob; and while 
they stood round him, considering no doubt his burial, Paul 
revived. The next day he departed for Derbe, thirty miles 
distant. 
The Return Journey.— Read Acts 14. 21-27. After a 

2 Bezan text. 

39 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

successful ministry at Derbe, which, being a small town, 
probably did not occupy them a long time, Paul and Barna- 
bas retraced their steps through the cities where they had 
preached the gospel. In revisiting these cities they were 
now concerned not with making new converts but in estab- 
lishing the disciples firmly in the new life. Since these 
Christians could look no more to the synagogue for teach- 
ing and guidance, it was necessary to organize them into 
churches. No doubt the Christians met in private houses, 
and it is not improbable that more than one church was 
organized in each city. Elders were appointed to oversee 
the church's life, and they were instructed concerning fast- 
ing and prayer. 

Homeward Bound. — On leaving Antioch the two trav- 
elers recrossed the Taurus Mountains into Pamphilia 
and tarried a while at Perga, preaching their Christian 
message. When opportunity offered to take ship from 
Attalia to Antioch, they sailed, and after an absence of 
from eighteen months to two years reached the city from 
which they had set out and recounted the story of their 
trials and triumphs, to the gratification of the Antiochian 
church. 

The Journey Through Asia Minor Into Europe 

A Year After the First Tour. — Approximately a year had 
passed since the return of Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, 
when one day Paul proposed to Barnabas that they should 
revisit the churches they had organized. During this inter- 
val Paul passed the time at Antioch and Jerusalem. Bead 
Acts 15. 36-40 for the difference of opinion which pre- 
vented Paul from carrying out his proposal to Barnabas. 

Off for Galatia. — Paul and Silas set out for Galatia, trav- 
eling by land and passing through the country about Tar- 
sus, where during some ten years Paul had presented the 
cause of Christ. Following the imperial highway through 
the Cilician gates across the Taurus, Paul and Silas came 
to Derbe and Lystra. At Derbe no more was done than 
to confirm the church. Paul seems to have left the respon- 
sibility of further evangelization upon the loyal disciples 

40 



A TOURING MISSIONARY 

themselves. They were not made dependent on a foreign 
missionary. At Lystra an important addition to the mis- 
sionary staff was made (Acts 16. 1-3). Examine also 2 
Timothy 1. 5-7; 1 Timothy 1. 18; 4. 14, and observe that 
a certain timidity and backwardness were characteristic of 
Timothy, and that he seemed to have been selected as a 
foreign missionary through the calling of some inspired 
fellow Christians at Lystra. 

On to Troas. — Eead Acts 16. 4-10. After leaving Lystra, 
Paul, Silas, and Timothy visited the churches in Antioch 
and other unnamed Phrygian towns. There is no hint of 
persecution now. The churches are strong in faith and 
growing larger daily. Fifteen or twenty miles from 
Antioch was the boundary between the provinces of Galatia 
and Asia. Asia was a rich and flourishing province, the 
great center of Hellenism in Paul's day. Evidently Paul 
had in mind the following of the great highway through 
the province to Ephesus. But some deep conviction that 
more experience was needed or, perhaps, some conflict with 
the authorities of one of these Asian cities was needed 
brought the positive assurance that this province was now 
open to evangelization. Accordingly, they struck northward 
through the eastern edge of the province of Asia, one hun- 
dred miles to the boundary of the province of Bithynia, 
bordering on the Euxine Sea. Here, again, they were con- 
vinced that Bithynia was not their present goal. They now 
turned directly east, passing through Mysia, a part of the 
province of Asia, to Troas. 

At Philippi. — Read Acts 16. 11-40. Led onward by a 
vision at Troas, Paul sailed across the iEgean Sea to Neapo- 
lis, a distance of one hundred and forty miles, and after a 
land journey of ten miles reached Philippi, a colony of 
Rome and the chief city of its district in Macedonia. 
The citizens of Philippi were Roman citizens and had the 
right to vote in the assemblies at Rome. The pride and 
privilege involved in such citizenship is the key to the 
incidents of Paul's ministry at Philippi. There was no 
synagogue in the city, and the Jewish population was 
negligible. Where there was no synagogue, the Jews were 

41 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOEMEKS 

accustomed to meet on the Sabbath for prayer beside a 
river or along the seashore. Women composed the little 
group Paul found gathered for worship here. 

The Fruits of Evangelism. — Paul's work ended in Phil- 
ippi through conflict with the authorities brought about by 
the attack of the owners of a slave girl, who was a ventrilo- 
quist. Among early peoples it was generally believed that 
ventriloquism was due to a spirit dwelling in the ventrilo- 
quist, and that such a person could tell the future. The 
Philippian populace, the owners of the girl, and the girl 
herself undoubtedly believed in this explanation of her 
power. Such a mind might well become diseased and dis- 
torted. When she was restored to sanity, her money-mak- 
ing power was gone. The charge of these embittered men 
against Paul and Silas before the magistrates climaxed 
in the claim that Eoman customs and privileges were being 
subverted. In the midst of the tumult Paul recognized the 
futility of claiming Eoman citizenship, or else his protest 
was not heard. They were thrown into the prison, wounded 
and sore from their beating, but their spirit was un- 
quenched. 

A Midnight Jail Delivery. — Coincident with the mid- 
night hymns and prayers of Paul and Silas, an earthquake 
shook the city and, forcing the doorposts of the prison 
apart, let slip the bar across the door so that it swung open. 
But the prisoners made no attempt to escape. The jailer, 
about to commit suicide, on being reassured by Paul secured 
the other prisoners 3 and led Paul and Silas forth. The 
prisoners were recognized in the city "as slaves of God" 
(Acts 16. 17), and it was generally assumed that the 
Deity, by the earthquake, was punishing the city for its 
evil treatment of his servants. Eead the remainder of 
the story of the jailer's conversion, the liberation of the 
prisoners, and their departure. 

The Journey to Corinth. — Eead Acts 17. 1 to 18. 1. Eead 
attentively the account of Paul's journey through Mace- 
donia into Greece. There is no explanation why he passed 



8 Beaan text. 

42 



A TOURING MISSIONARY 

through certain important cities without presenting the 
gospel. In Thessalonica he began, as usual, with the syna- 
gogue; and his work ended here, as in most cases, with a 
riot. A new charge was made against the missionaries 
here. At Berea a most favorable impression was made upon 
the missionaries by the citizens. Athens, the next 
preaching point on the journey, presented an entirely 
different situation. Despite his unfavorable reception 
Paul's preaching was not fruitless. A later chapter will 
consider Paul's message at Athens in more detail. The 
next station was Corinth. Here Paul remained for some 
time, and through his and others' labors a strong church 
was established. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

The Imperialism of the Christian Gospel. — This chapter 
presents an outline of the journeys and labors of Paul and 
his companions in their efforts to spread the good news of 
Christ into Gentile lands. The first journey was a tour of 
about nine hundred miles; the second, twelve hundred 
miles. There is a definite statement that the gospel was 
proclaimed in eleven cities. This, however, is not the 
whole account of Paul's preaching stations. See Romans 
15. 19; 1 Thessalonians 1. 7; Acts 13. 49; 16. 4. Greek 
was the language used by the missionaries. It was spoken 
by Cyprians, Pamphilians, Galatians, Asians, Bithynians, 
Macedonians, and Achseans. It was the language of the 
synagogue, the courts, the pagan temples, the market place, 
and the church. These journeys of Paul radiate the glow- 
ing imperialism of the Christian gospel. It possesses a 
conquering message for all peoples. It throbs with the 
beat of universal life. It knows no racial, political, or 
social barriers. Springing from the soul of the one uni- 
versal God, it is the very essence of democracy. It has in 
its very nature the power to level and to exalt, to purge 
and to enrich, the diversified units of humanity into a 
breathing, living, vital fraternity. 

The Kingdom of God at Work. — Here we see the king- 

43 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEPOEMEKS 

dom of God actually at work in fulfilling the dream of the 
best of the Hebrew prophets. In their thought the Hebrew 
was Jehovah's evangelist and missionary. Jesus reawak- 
ened that consciousness of Jewish mission in Peter, 
Stephen, Barnabas, Silas, and Paul. In Paul it flared forth 
in power and triumph. This is the turning point of 
the world's history. Here is the actual, successful, per- 
manent crossing of Jewish barriers by Christianity into the 
wide domain of the world's life. The idealism of Jesus 
Christ is justified by its victory in his greatest of apostles. 

Obeying Okders 

A Soldier of Jesus Christ. — Paul veritably was a soldier 
of Jesus Christ. Near Damascus he enlisted under his 
great Commander. Thenceforth he lived under orders. 
At Christ's command he set out for Cyprus. He was for- 
bidden by the Spirit of Jesus to journey through the prov- 
ince of Asia to Ephesus. He was turned back from the 
shores of the Euxine Sea and sent into Macedonia by the 
same authority. Paul never proclaimed the gospel to a man 
or to a city apart from this consciousness of the directing 
presence of Christ in his soul. His plans were the fulfill- 
ing of Christ's program. It was this consciousness of ful- 
filling Christ's will which gave him strength. Think for a 
moment of his vast labors. Hundreds of miles on foot, en- 
countering in every city his angry countrymen, antagoniz- 
ing the deepest social relationships of the Gentile world, 
haled by mobs before the political authorities, jeered and 
cursed, scourged and stoned, imprisoned and exiled, alien- 
ated from his family and often sick, and, although ever on 
extensive journeys, providing for his necessities by his own 
hard labor at tentmaking, his life for years was an appalling 
round of difficulties and sacrifices to challenge the stoutest 
man. Yet Paul endured and triumphed in his conscious- 
ness of the Christ dwelling within him. 

The Secret of a Joyous Life. — It was because Paul obeyed 
that his life was a joyous life. There is no joy like the joy 
of spiritual exaltation. Only a heaven-filled soul could 

44 



A TOURING MISSIONARY 

write, "I have been crucified with Christ, and it is no longer 
I that live, but Christ liveth in me." Wounded, sore, un- 
washed, unfed, unjustly condemned, he sings midnight 
hymns in the Philippian jail. His greatest wish for the 
happiness of others is that they might be filled with his 
joy (Acts 26. 29). He has sung Christianity's greatest 
hymn of joyous love (1 Corinthians 13). To be dismayed 
and cast down by life's tasks and burdens is indeed to be 
the slave, and not the master, of the world. No man is 
defeated whose life is the fulfilled program of God. Con- 
scious of carrying out the divine will, a man may evidence 
the customary signs of defeat, but such a man is crowned 
with victory. 

The Right Perspective. — In obedience to orders Paul 
took up a new relation to trade and business. Tentmaking 
never became for him a primary interest. It was ever 
subordinate to the work of the kingdom of God. Why 
should farming or teaching or manufacturing or mer- 
chandising or any other vocation ever set aside the great 
spiritual interests of life? Is the soul secondary to the 
body? Who enters into the fullest, richest life — the man 
who centers his desires in food and clothing, in farms 
and banks, or he who lives to further civic reforms, to 
erase some aggravating social injustice, to spread the 
Kingdom to the remotest land, and to win the men of his 
own community into the fellowship of Jesus Christ ? There 
is only one answer: That man enters into life who seeks 
life. He who labors primarily for the flesh sinks to the 
pettiness of his transient goals. 

God's Orders. — Every man is under the orders of God. 
To seek his orders gladly and to follow them strictly opens 
every door to human joy and triumph. Back of all our 
blind groping after greatness and happiness is the pro- 
gram of God for our part in the world's life. To miss this 
plan of God by our wayward willfulness is the dark tragedy 
of mankind. To open one's soul to all that God would 
be in us is to know life in all its possible greatness. The 
will of God is the only path leading from this hour to 
heaven. 

45 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Suggestions foe Class Discussion 

1. How came Paul to be called to be a missionary? 

2. What peculiar interest attaches to the church at Antioch? 

3. Trace the journey and work of Paul at Cyprus, Antioch 
in Galatia, Lyconium, and Lystra. 

4. What prompted Paul's second missionary tour? 

5. What results were attained at Troas, Philippi, Corinth, 
and Athens? 

6. If Paul considered himself a missionary to the Gentiles, 
what object did he have in speaking in the synagogues? 

7. State the points of teaching in which Paul and the or- 
thodox Jews differed. Why did Paul's emphasis of these 
differences naturally cause antagonism? 

8. What particular teachings of Paul antagonized his Gen- 
tile hearers? 

9. What contribution was made by Barnabas and Silas to 
these early Gentile churches? 

10. Mention a few of the social, moral, and religious ideas 
and practices which these early Gentile Christians were 
obliged to discard in order to enjoy personal fellowship with 
Jesus Christ. 

11. What sort of faith, devotion, and courage characterized 
the labors and sufferings of the first missionaries into Gen- 
tile lands? 

12. How did the Greek language become a force in the 
development of the Kingdom? 

13. Show that the new putting of the gospel message demon- 
strated the genius of the early missionaries. 

14. To what extent were the events of this lesson the great 
turning point in the world's history? 

15. How far is the idealism of Jesus justified by its vic- 
tory in his greatest of apostles? 

References for Additional Study 

The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 234-62. 

St. Paul the Traveler, Ramsay, pages 70-128, 194-252. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume I, pages 
316-27. 

Article "Roads and Travel in the New Testament" in 
A Dictionary of the Bible, Hastings, Volume V. 



46 



CHAPTER IV 

THE EAELY-CHRISTIAN MESSAGE 

To contemplate the triumphs of early Christianity is 
to be filled with wonder at the rapidity with which the new 
religion spread through the lands open to travelers from 
Jerusalem. When Paul was in Thessalonica, his enemies 
said of the missionaries that they had "turned the world 
upside down" (Acts 17. 6). During PauPs lifetime it was 
said the gospel was proclaimed a in every place" (1 Thessa- 
lonians 1. 8), "throughout the whole world" (Eomans 1. 
8), "in all the world bearing fruit and increasing" (Colos- 
sians 1. 6), "preached among the nations" (1 Timothy 3. 
16); "preached everywhere" (Mark 16. 20). Countless 
thousands of Jews were numbered among Christian be- 
lievers (Acts 21. 20). Eevelation 7. 9 indicates the wide 
expansion of the faith at the close of the first Christian 
century. This is amazing history. There were three 
classes of people who were drawn into the new life : namely, 
Jews ; Gentiles who, sick of the idolatry of the pagan world, 
were the adherents of the synagogue and were known as 
"God-fearing" or "devout persons" ; and Gentiles who were 
raw converts from heathenism itself. What was the mes- 
sage which won these people by the multiplied thousands 
to Christianity? 

The Presentation of Christianity to the Jew 

The Preaching of the First Days. — It has been pointed 
out in the first chapter that the theme of Peter's preaching 
was the Messiahship of Jesus. The customary Jewish view 
of the kingdom of God was held by these earliest disciples 
of Jesus. It was their task not to proclaim a new content 
in Kingdom expectations but to declare that Jesus of 
Nazareth, a man approved by signs which God did by him, 
although he had been crucified and buried, had been raised 

47 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

from the dead, exalted by God, and given a glorified place 
by God's side in heaven. It was through this process of 
suffering and exaltation, strange and unexpected, that 
Jesus of Nazareth had been made the Messiah (Acts 2. 
36) . According to this preaching Jesus has not yet entered 
into his Messianic work; he is simply inducted into this 
Messianic office. Jesus, who is now the Christ, will remain 
in heaven until the dawning of the Messianic age (Acts 3. 
21), but these "times of restoration" are not far distant: 
Peter and his colaborers and their auditors will live to 
witness the advent of the Messiah (Acts 1. 11). 

The Resurrection of Jesus the Crowning Proof of His 
Messiahship. — The resurrection is the first proof offered to 
the Jews who knew little or nothing of the earthly life of 
Jesus. The signs by which God evidenced his choice of 
Jesus are not related. Appeal is made rather to the Jew- 
ish Scriptures, by means of which the apostles seek to prove 
that it was prophesied that the Messiah was to suffer, die, 
and rise again. Scripture proof on these points would be 
convincing and final for a Jewish audience. After hearing 
the facts of the resurrection and the proof of Scripture the 
Jew who was convinced of the Messiahship of Jesus was 
"pricked in the heart" that he and his people had so mal- 
treated God's Messiah. There was now only one course of 
action: He must repent for such blindness and evildoing, 
confess by baptism the Messianic nature and office of Jesus, 
and receive forgiveness of sins as the result of this acknowl- 
edgment of wrong and this new adherence to Jesus, the 
Christ (Acts 2. 38; 5. 31). To do these things was to 
save themselves from their "crooked generation" (Acts 2. 
40), to be preserved from utter destruction (Acts 3. 23). 
Since Jesus is God's true Messiah, there is no other name 
or person through whom the salvation of the Messianic 
Kingdom can be secured (Acts 4. 12). To acknowledge 
this Messiahship of Jesus is "to obey God" (Acts 5. 29), 
and to those who so obey him God sends the Holy Spirit 
as his witness of their obedience, his assurance of the truth 
of their beliefs, and the seal of their rights in the coming 
Messianic Kingdom (Acts 5. 32). 

48 



THE EARLY-CHRISTIAN" MESSAGE 

later Preaching to the Jews. — Time passed. The Mes- 
siah did not return. But the glory of the earthly life and 
the mystery of the resurrection did not dim. There were 
depths in the life and sufferings of Jesus -which the first 
preaching did not sound. At first the death of the Messiah 
was a hindrance in Christian thinking, but in reflecting 
over this death it came to pass that a saving significance 
was attached to it. This conviction was deepened by the sense 
that the most faithful adherence to Jewish law left life 
barren of lofty inspiration and, especially, did not fill the 
soul with a joyous sense of Tightness before God. Jewish 
legalism neither bequeathed to its most loyal adherents the 
sense that God was satisfied with a kept law nor yielded 
the strong motive for a rigorous moral life such as was 
pressed upon them by the presence of the Spirit within 
them. At first the prophets were made to yield their wit- 
ness to the dying Messiah. Next the law was subjected to 
searching inquiry, and it too was interpreted to witness 
the necessity of the death of Christ. When this was done, 
the early Christians became clearly aware that the death 
of Jesus was necessary to salvation. Peter's address to 
Cornelius (Acts 10. 34-48) indicates the initial stage of the 
subjection of righteousness obtained by observance of law 
to the new righteousness obtained by direct cleaving unto 
Christ. This position is witnessed also by the fellowship 
given Paul by the Jerusalem leaders — James, Peter, and 
John (Galatians 2. 9). 

(a) The death of Christ necessary to salvation. — It may 
have been at Antioch that the first definite proclamation 
was made that the death of Christ was necessary to salva- 
tion. Paul positively asserts that he had not been in- 
structed in the gospel by the apostles (Galatians 1. 17). 
Yet he states that he had been taught that the central fact 
of the gospel is that "Christ died for our sins" (1 Corin- 
thians 15. 3) and he implies (1 Corinthians 15. 11) that 
this was the customary preaching of all Christian mission- 
aries. Paul labored a year at Antioch before setting out 
on his missionary journey to Galatia. Then, when he 
preached to the Jews of Antioch in Galatia, he proclaimed 

49 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

that the death of Christ is essential to salvation — that is, to 
justification before God. 

(1) Paul's method. — Examine Acts 13. 16-41 for the ele- 
ments of Paul's preaching to the Jews. He, like Peter, 
seeks to show that Jesus, although crucified, is neverthe- 
less the Messiah. Like his predecessors he also seeks to 
show that the death and resurrection of Jesus are fully at- 
tested by the prophetic writings of Israel. But Paul goes 
further than the recorded sermons of his predecessors. He 
puts explicitly what others were beginning to feel: The 
death of Christ has some sort of atoning merit. Through 
this dying and rising Messiah believing Christians receive 
what they could not receive through the most faithful 
adherence to Jewish legalism — a justification before God. 
This account of the preaching of the saving value of Christ's 
death is corroborated by Paul's own testimony. See Gala- 
tians 1. 4; 2. 16-20; 3. 1-11. While Paul, in Galatians, is 
writing to Christians, of whom nearly all were Gentiles, 
he sets forth the gospel as he would proclaim it to the 
Jew. 

(2) Fruits of conflict with Judaism. — It is not likely 
that in any of the cities where the gospel had been preached 
up to the time Paul began work in Corinth, Christian 
preaching attempted to give a reasoned explanation of the 
way in which the death of Christ secured the salvation 
which the law was unable to do. At this stage, before 
the Judaizers troubled the Galatian churches, it was suf- 
ficient to proclaim that "Christ died for us" (1 Thessa- 
lonians 5. 10) ; that "he gave himself for our sins" (Gala- 
tians 1. 4). It was in the conflict of Gentilic Christianity 
with Judaism that the disciples felt the need of a richer 
doctrine of both the work and the person of Christ. 

(b) Why Christ died. — Paul was no doubt the first of 
the early church to work out a fuller conception of Christ 
than was used even by him in the first fifteen years of his 
preaching. When he felt the need of asking and answering 
why Christ died Paul found no single answer full enough 
for his needs. The most obvious way to view the death of 
Christ was to consider it as some form of sacrifice. For 

50 



THE EABLY-CHEISTIAN MESSAGE 

Paul it was not merely Jesus of Nazareth who had died : 
it was the Messiah who was put to death on the cross. 

(1) The answer in Romans 3. 2Jf-26; 8. 1-lf. — These 
passages, difficult to interpret accurately, present the death 
of Christ as a sacrifice. The ideas here seem as follows: 
(a) God in the past has not punished sins with strict jus- 
tice. (&) This forbearance of God is at an end: God must 
exhibit his own righteousness and he now insists upon 
righteousness in men. (c) Since God does not wish to 
destroy men he sends his Son as a sacrifice for sin (Eomans 
8. 3, marginal reading), (d) Such an exhibition of God's 
love (Eomans 8. 32) and such a death of the sinless Son 
(2 Corinthians 5. 21) fully set forth the righteousness of 
God and the necessity for justice, (e) After this justness 
is shown by the death of Christ, God may freely justify 
mankind. (/) This death of Christ becomes a propitiatory 
sacrifice when so claimed by faith. 

(2) The answer in Galatians 3. 10-13. — Paul approaches 
the death of Christ in another way in Galatians 3. 10-13. 
The key to this passage is the primitive conception of a 
curse. 1 According to early ideas a curse possesses objective 
reality and keeps its potency until it lights upon some being 
and spends its power in working some evil (see Deuteron- 
omy 11. 29 for this conception). The argument for the 
death of Christ on this line is: (a) Everyone who seeks 
righteousness by law is under a curse, for cursed is he who 
fails in any point of observance of law. (b) The curse 
of unfulfilled law is death, (c) Christ took upon himself 
the curse of the law, for he hung upon a tree (Deuteronomy 
21. 22, 23). By his death the curse of the law spent itself. 
(d) Eeleased from the curse, we may now receive freely 
through faith the justifying Spirit of God. 

(8) Another answer. — There is a third way in which 
Paul conceived the necessity of the death of Christ. Eead 
Galatians 2. 20 and observe the mystical union of Paul with 
Christ. It is Christ who lives in Paul's body. So close is 



1 See Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, Westermark, Volume I, pages 57- 
61; articles "Cursing and Blessing" in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, and 
"Curse" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic Church, Hastings. 

51 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

this union that Paul too has been crucified. This mystical 
union of the believer with Christ is the privilege and the 
obligation of every true disciple (1 Thessalonians 5. 10 )♦ 
Bead now Eomans 6. 2-11 and observe that Christians are 
mystically identified with Christ in death and in resurrec- 
tion, which for believers is a resurrection from sin into 
newness of life. Christians are "crucified with Christ"; 
they have "died with Christ"; they are "alive in Christ 
Jesus." It is this process of death and resurrection 
achieved in union with Christ that justifies us before God. 
"Those that are in Christ Jesus" stand uncondemned 
(Eomans 8. 1). Examine also 2 Corinthians 5. 14-21. 
Note the clear statement of the mystical union of Chris- 
tians with Christ in his death. "One died, therefore all 
died." Since men must die to sin to be righteous before 
God, and since to live righteously they must become right- 
eous in Christ (2 Corinthians 5. 17, 21) — that is, they 
must be mystically united with Christ (Galatians 2. 20; 
3. 27) — Christ must needs die that all men might die with 
him and rise with him. 

Paul's Messiah Is God's Own Son. — Paul's Messiah is 
not only "Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of God" 
(Acts 2. 22), but God's own Son entering by human birth 
into the Jewish world (Galatians 4. 4, 5) to work out his 
Messianic mission of redemption. This for Paul was the 
astounding wonder of the world. The Son of God, living in 
equal glory with God, resigned his heavenly life to enter 
into the servile life of men, enduring the suffering and the 
shame of the cross, to become the Saviour of men (Philip- 
pians 2. 6-8). This was the secret of Christ for Paul: love 
and service in infinite measure to redeem the world from 
sin. 

The Gospel as Peesented to the God-Fearing 

Gentile Worshipers of Jehovah. — In every city where 
there was a synagogue pagans were attracted by the positive 
and relatively simple doctrines and pure morals of Judaism. 
Such Gentiles, though unwilling to throw in their lot with 
the Jewish race, gave up their pagan worship. Such were 

52 



THE EARLY-CHRISTIAN MESSAGE 

called "God-fearing" (Acts 10. 22; 13. 16, 26). Peter's 
message to Cornelius (Acts 10. 34-43) is an instance of the 
earliest presentation of the gospel to these devout Gentiles. 
Observe in this sermon the extensive reference to the earthly 
life of Jesus. As in Peter's discourse at Pentecost, so here 
it is Jesus of Nazareth who is exalted to be the Christ 
(Acts 10. 42). Here it is asserted that Christ — that is, 
the Messiah — is to be the Judge of all mankind. Accept- 
ance of this Messianic character of Jesus is followed by 
forgiveness of sins and the presence of the Holy Spirit. 

At Thessalonica and Berea. — At Thessalonica, Paul 
spoke in the local synagogue. Devout Greeks, adherents of 
Judaism, were in his audience (Acts 17. 2, 3). The same 
message was proclaimed at Berea (Acts 17. 11). It is 
unlikely that Paul made any distinction in his preaching to 
the "God-fearing." They were familiar enough with Juda- 
ism to follow his arguments. 

The Message Delivered to Pagan Hearers 

Paul's Message at Lystra and Athens. — The author of 
Acts gives two brief reports of Paul's discourses to a 
heathen audience — the first at Lystra (14. 15-17), the sec- 
ond at Athens (17. 22-31). There axe brief statements and 
hints of his preaching to pagans in his letters. Paul's 
preaching doubtless was the type by which churches were 
built up in pagan lands. Paganism was cursed by idolatry 
and immorality. No doubt the most educated, so far as 
they were religious, knew the vanity of idolatry and believed 
in a deity who was not to be worshiped in wood and stone ; 
but the masses were not so freed from primitive beliefs. 
Paul saw the moral baseness of pagan civilization and 
severely arraigned it in his preaching. First Thessalonians 
4. 2-6; 1. 3; Galatians 5. 19-21; Romans 1. 26-31, picture 
the vices of the heathen world. 

One True and Living God. — Paul felt his first duty was 
to proclaim that there is only one true and living God. 
Thus Christian preaching was a monotheistic challenge 
to the widely spread and deeply rooted polytheism of an- 
cient life. See Acts 14. 15; 17. 23; 1 Thessalonians 1. 9. 

53 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEPOEMEES 

This one God is the Creator of the world (Acts 14. 15; 
17. 24-26, 28), the giver of earth's blessings (14. 17; 
17. 25). His nature, being spiritual, cannot be honored by 
worship of idols, however costly they may be (17. 29; 1 
Thessalonians 1. 9). Since the gods of the pagans are 
demons (1 Corinthians 10. 20), the worship of idols is the 
source of the pagan world's immoralities (Eomans 1. 22- 
32). God in the past has been indulgent toward this idola- 
try and immorality; he now commands men to turn from 
idolatry and repent of their evil deeds (Acts 17. 30, 31). 
The pagan world is not excusable for its excesses: nature 
should have revealed a better deity than paganism knew 
(14. 17; 17, 28, 29; Eomans 1. 20). Judgment awaits in 
which evildoers shall be punished (Acts 17. 31). 

Salvation From Sin. — God offers salvation not only from 
the disasters these evils are bringing upon men but also 
from the sins themselves. He has sent his Son into the 
world, who was crucified for our sins (Galatians 1. 4; 3. 1; 
1 Corinthians 15. 3). This Son, whom men knew as Jesus, 
was raised from the dead (Acts 17. 18, 31; 1 Thessalonians 
1. 10; 1 Corinthians 15. 3). He will come again to 
inaugurate the judgment (1 Thessalonians 1. 10; 5. 1, 2; 
Acts 17. 31). From the sin and its penalty, awarded at the 
time of judgment (Galatians 6. 7, 8), we are saved by faith. 
We are justified before God not by obedience to law but by 
faith (Galatians 3. 6-9). Yet the disciples of Christ must 
evidence this faith by pure living. It was here, in the giv- 
ing up of idols and immoral practices, that Christian liv- 
ing made its open break with the pagan world. The Chris- 
tian message was through and through a moral message. 
In every place Paul evidently charged his converts from 
paganism with the necessity of pure living (1 Thessalonians 
4. 1-7; Galatians 5. 13-26). This salvation from the wrath 
of the impending judgment and from evil living was assured 
and experienced by mystical union with Christ (1 Thessa- 
lonians 5. 10; Galatians 2. 20; 3. 5). 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Paul's Preaching to the Gentiles Presents a Distinct 

54 



THE EAKLY-CHKISTIAN MESSAGE 

Advance in Kingdom Conquest Along Social Lines. — To 

unite men of many races and various stages of social 
achievement into one brotherhood involves a recognition of 
the good in all. Judaism in Paul's day saw no value in 
paganism. Dim-eyed in sympathy and faith, Jewish religion 
lacked the spiritual initiative and strength to seize upon 
the Greco-Eoman world and build up within it a native reli- 
gious life on monotheistic and nonidolatrous lines. What 
Judaism failed to do, Christianity accomplished. It did 
this because it was able to recognize the good in the pagan 
world and to seize upon this good as material for the Chris- 
tian kingdom. Paganism for Paul was not wholly bad : it 
and Christianity were not mutually exclusive. Greeks and 
Jews had a common origin in God. God marked out the 
boundaries of nations ; he manifests himself in every living 
being; his providence is seen in the rains, the sunshine, 
and the harvests of every land. Then, too, the religion of 
paganism was not wholly worthless. It was devout to 
excess (Acts 17. 22). The very excesses of pagan religion 
express the Gentile world's groping after God (17. 27). 
The significant sociological element in Paul's preaching 
to the Gentiles is that he turns aside from the Old Testa- 
ment upon which to ground his message and bases it rather 
in the moral and religious consciousness of humanity. 

Across Boundaries 

The Intellectual Traveler. — Who does not marvel at the 
missionary journeys of Paul? Yet more marvelous than 
the unwearied tours along the highways of the empire are 
the intellectual journeys he took from the doctrines of his 
forefathers. Paul is preeminently the intellectual traveler 
of the early Christian world. Trained in Judaism as none 
of his Christian coworkers were, he yet perceived, most 
clearly of all, the universal impulses of the gospel and fol- 
lowed them into sympathetic understanding of the Gentile 
world. Paul's intellectual sympathies placed him in com- 
mand of early Christianity. 

Intellectual Largeness. — Shall we learn intellectual 
largeness from Paul? Shall we too renounce the static 

55 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

view of life? Shall we too admit that all truth has not 
been discovered by our forefathers ? Shall we believe that 
beyond the highest range of our knowledge dim, mysterious 
summits of facts and experiences await the intrepid climbers 
of the far-off years ? Shall we also learn that theology is 
not an ancient well from which our forefathers drank and 
were satisfied, and from which we too must quench our 
thirst or die, but rather is a living stream bearing us ever 
on its deep bosom toward the infinite ocean of life with 
God? "None of our theories are quite large enough for 
all the disclosures of time," wrote George Eliot, and the 
passing centuries do reveal in every department of life that 
ancient formulas, like the old wineskins of the gospel par- 
able, are too frail for the wider and richer experiences of 
mankind. Who cannot see also that Paul was a spiritual 
journeyer? To turn from Jew to Gentile enriched the 
content of his own soul. From Tarsus to Athens is the 
symbol of the journey from the righteousness of the law 
to the peace of the indwelling Christ. Paul's spiritual 
experiences resembled a runner pushing toward the goal. 
He kept an attitude of daily expectancy of revelation from 
God. He knew that the full content of his orders had not 
been given at Damascus. At Antioch, the borders of 
Bithynia, at Troas, at every city, there came fresh indica- 
tions of the divine will. The present was continually aglow 
with new discoveries of the counsel and the comfort of his 
Christ. 

Spiritual Expectancy. — We too must stand a-tiptoe with 
spiritual expectancy. Mighty Kingdom movements are 
waiting until we stop brooding over the past and idolizing 
ancient religious experiences and turn with wonder and 
faith and love toward coming revelations and commissions 
from God. We must believe still in prophecy: the eternal 
Spirit still plays on the human soul and gives man new 
vision and new authority. The essential thing in religion, 
as in every other aspect of life, is not to have reached some 
particular point but to be on the move. In the infinite 
universe the spiritual roads have no final milestones. To 
keep our faces set toward the celestial city, to travel hope- 

56 



THE EAELY-CHEISTIAN MESSAGE 

fully, is a better thing than to have stopped at any hos- 
pitable spiritual caravansary along life's highways. 

The Undreamed-of Good in Men. — It is when we cross 
social and racial boundaries that we discover an undreamed 
good in men. We never shall come to terms with the man 
or the community we wish to win unto Christ until we 
start with the good in them. We must approach the task 
of Kingdom building with the consciousness that men are 
of one blood. Nations are not great through victorious 
war. The conquering people have shed their own blood in 
the conquered. One blood runs in pauper and millionaire, 
in Mayflower posterity and the Slavic slave of toil, in 
Anglo-Saxon and the slant-eyed Japanese. 

An Enlarging Conception of God. — Paul found a greater 
God in Athens than he knew in Jerusalem. The Deity 
whom he came to know in his journeyings and preaching 
lived on intimate terms not only with the Jew but also with 
the uncircumcised Greek. In him the heathen world also 
had its sustaining life. To enter sympathetically into the 
life of other churches and other religions is to discover a 
larger God than we hitherto have found in our sect. Their 
prayers ascend also to our God, and from him too come 
their impulses to good. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What was the leading theme of the earliest Christian 
preaching to the Jews? 

2. What conception of the person of Jesus was held by 
(1) the Christian preacher and (2) the orthodox Jewish 
hearer? 

3. What did Messiahship mean to the Jews? 

4. In what way did early Christian preaching prove Jesus 
to be the Messiah? 

5. Explain the emphasis given in the early preaching to 
the resurrection of Jesus. 

6. What conditions led to the conviction that the death 
of Christ was necessary to salvation? 

7. How did Paul explain the saving value of the death of 
Jesus Christ? 

8. Who were the "God-fearing"? 

9. What was the content of the preaching to the "God- 
fearing"? 

57 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

10. Why was the acceptance of the Messianic character of 
Jesus followed by forgiveness of sins? 

11. Discuss the "God-fearing" at Thessalonica and Berea. 

12. What were the nationality and religious beliefs of the 
pagan hearers of the early Christian preachers? 

13. Discuss Paul's preaching to the Gentiles under the fol- 
lowing topics: (a) the one true God's revelation of himself; 
(&) the value of idolatry; (c) the moral abasement of Gentile 
life; (d) the inevitable judgment; (e) the way of escape. 

14. What elements in the Gentile world gave Paul's mes- 
sage its opportunity to grip the Gentile life? 

15. How far was Paul fitted to reach both the common peo- 
ple and the cultured Greeks? 

16. In what way did Paul's preaching to the Gentiles pre- 
sent a distinct advance in Kingdom conquest along social 
lines? 

17. To what extent did the Jews and Greeks have a common 
basis for their religion? 

Reading References 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume I, pages 86-100. 

Paul and His Epistles, Hayes, pages 151-57. 

The Beginnings of Christianity, Wernle, Volume I, pages 
174-222. 

The Doctrine of the Person of Jesus Christ, Macintosh, 
pages 39-44. 



58 



CHAPTER V 
THE CHURCH OP THE CIRCUMCISION 

At about the year a. d. 50 there took place a conference 
between Paul and the leaders of the mother church at Jeru- 
salem. In writing of this council to the Christians in 
Galatia, Paul distinguishes the gospel of the uncircumcision 
from the gospel of the circumcision. It appears from the 
second chapter of Galatians that the Christian community 
had split into two factions, and that henceforth there were 
to be two gospels and two churches instead of one. It 
seemed inevitable that there must be both a Jewish and a 
Gentilic Christianity. 

This chapter traces this widening breach, sets forth the 
content of Jewish Christianity, and estimates its contribu- 
tion to the kingdom of God. 

The Beeach in the Christian Community 

Jewish Christians Versus Gentile. — The widespread 
preaching that followed the stoning of Stephen through cer- 
tain Hellenistic Jewish Christians reached the Gentiles at 
Antioch (Acts 11. 20) ; and "the hand of the Lord" was 
with these adventurers who opened the door of the king- 
dom of God to the Gentile world. For these Hellenistic 
Jews, living at a distance from Jerusalem before their 
acceptance of Christianity, the ceremonial bonds of Juda- 
ism had been loosened, and it was not demanded of these 
Gentile converts that they should be circumcised. When Paul 
and Barnabas returned to Antioch, fresh from their tri- 
umph among the Gentiles of Galatia, a new impulse was 
given to the evangelization of the Gentiles in Antioch. 
Reports of these things reached Jerusalem, and certain of 
the Jewish Christians of that city, incensed at these irregu- 
larities, came to Antioch (Acts 15. 1) and insisted that the 

59 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Jewish law was binding even upon Gentilic Christians. 
The Jewish Christians up to this time were strict observers 
of Jewish law. They had made no break with Judaism. 
They continued to frequent the Temple. Indeed, at first 
they became more zealous for the traditions of their fathers 
because of their expectations of the speedy return of the 
Messiah. 

The Church Conference at Jerusalem. — Acts 15. 2-5 gives 
the result of this visit of the Jerusalem Christians to An- 
tioch. The conference at Jerusalem occurred about a. d. 50. 
Keep clearly in mind the nature of the dispute. Acts 15. 5 * 
states the position of the stricter Jewish Christian party 
with reference to circumcision and the law. Paul's posi- 
tion may be gathered from the second chapter of Galatians 
and Acts 15. 19 — namely, that Jewish law is not binding 
upon Gentile Christians. Paul seems at this time to have 
won absolutely his contention. The advocates of circum- 
cision evidently demanded that Titus should be circumcised 
(Galatians 2. 3), but this demand was successfully resisted. 
Paul apparently was able to win from the heads of the Jeru- 
salem church a full and friendly recognition of his posi- 
tion. He insists strongly that the pillars of Jewish Chris- 
tianity laid no restrictions upon him (Galatians 2. 5, 6) 
and that they parted on the friendliest terms (2. 9, 10). 
The only requirement asked of Paul, as the apostle of 
Gentilic Christianity, was the request that he should help 
relieve the necessities of his Jewish brethren in Jerusalem. 
Acts 15. 20 indicates that at this time a ceremonial restric- 
tion was laid upon the Gentile brethren. This statement 
can best be harmonized with PauPs positive declaration to 
the contrary by following the hint given in Acts 21. 18-26, 
especially verse 25. Here it seems that the Jewish Chris- 
tian authorities, in asking Paul to conform to a Jewish 
ceremonial, urge that they have written to Gentile Chris- 
tians imposing upon them a certain amount of Jewish 
ritualism as well as moral law. This is offered as some- 
thing new to Paul and something that occurred at a later 
period than the council of a. d. 50. 

The Dispute at Antioch. — After the friendly settlement 

60 



THE CHURCH OF THE CIRCUMCISION 

in Jerusalem, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch. 
Shortly afterward Peter also arrived there. The fine 
feeling existing between Jewish and Gentile Christians 
in the church of this city charmed Peter, and he, with all 
other Christian Jews of the place, lived in intimate fel- 
lowship with the Gentile brethren. But again the stricter 
Jews came from Jerusalem, this time from James himself, 
and out of fear of these new visitors Peter and all other 
Jews broke off their Christian intimacy with the Gentiles. 
Even Barnabas likewise dissembled. Read closely Gala- 
tians 2. 11-21. Here occurred the second step in the breach 
of Gentilic Christianity with Christian Judaism. Paul's 
argument here is very keen. He points out that Peter and 
the other Jews, in breaking the regulations of Judaism by 
eating with Gentile Christians, have confessed in effect that 
men are justified before God not by observance of law but 
by their faith in Christ. The Jerusalem conference had 
conceded that the Gentiles were so justified. Henceforth 
Paul's gospel to the Jew was clear: "by the works of the 
law shall no flesh be justified/' It was this double acting 
of Peter which vitiated the message of Jewish Christianity 
and freed Paul from the last obligation of Jewish law. 
Henceforth he set his face westward with one gospel for 
the whole world. He saw that Christianity could be a liv- 
ing power only in freedom from the unyielding grip of 
Judaism. "I do not make void the grace of God," he 
exclaimed: "for if righteousness is through the law, then 
Christ died for nought." 

Factions in Jewish Christianity 

Those Who Placed Faith in Christ Above the Obligations 
of the Law. — These could not have constituted a large party 
at first. The Jewish Christians at Antioch belonged to 
this group. Despite their temporary dissimulation under 
the leadership of Peter they soon returned to their former 
views. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Jewish Chris- 
tianity in all the Greek coast towns passed over into the 
Gentilic type. Even Peter, judging by 1 Peter, eventually 
approximated Paul's positions. Such Jewish Christians, 

61 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

both by their views and by the fanaticism of their stricter 
brethren, were thrust out into Gentilic Christianity. 

Those Who Believed That the Law Was Binding Upon 
Jewish Christians but That the Gentile Christians Were 
Not Obligated by Its Provisions. — James and John were 
the leaders of this party. 

Those Who Believed That Jewish Law Was Obligatory 
Upon All Christians.— Acts 6. 7; 15. 5; 21. 20 indicate the 
reason for this stricter Jewish party and the extent of its 
influence. It was this party which, refusing to be bound 
by the conference of a. d. 50, dogged the footsteps of Paul 
to the end of his days. 

(a) These Judaizers followed Paul first to Galatia. — 
These men boldly attacked both Paul's gospel and his 
apostolate. They claimed that it was a false gospel, and 
that Paul was without authority to conduct a mission 
among Gentiles. They said that he was trying to please 
men (Galatians 1. 10) ; that he sometimes had preached 
circumcision (5. 11) ; that he was the enemy of his con- 
verts (4. 16). They demanded that these Gentile Chris- 
tians must be circumcised (5. 12; 6. 13). Paul justifies his 
gospel by its effect upon his own life (1. 11-17), by the 
fact that it was a revelation from Christ himself (1. 12), 
that he had won for it the approval of the Jerusalem 
authorities (2. 9), and that it had been eminently fruitful 
in transforming the lives of the Gentiles (3. 5; 5. 7). 

(b) They pursued him to Corinth. — Bringing letters of 
introduction (2 Corinthians 3. 1) and boasting in their 
Jewish Christianity — the only true Christianity (11. 22) — 
they declare that Paul is no apostle (11. 5; 12. 11-13); 
that the gospel he proclaims is difficult and mysterious 
(4. 3) ; that Paul is rude in speech (11. 6) ; that he can 
write sharply and boldly, but when face to face with men 
his speech is humble, and his demeanor cowardly (10. 1) ; 
that he is crafty, catches men with guile (12. 16) ; that he 
corrupts those who listen to him, taking advantage of the 
simple-minded (7. 2) ; that he prides himself on taking no 
money from the Corinthians but is secretly supported by 
other churches (11. 7, 8) ; and that he is guilty of shame- 

62 



THE CHURCH OF THE CIRCUMCISION 

ful things in secret (4. 2). Paul justly denounces these 
Judaizers as false apostles : the hypocrites have no authority 
for their propaganda — they have fashioned themselves into 
apostles (11. 13). They preach another Jesus and a dif- 
ferent gospel (11. 4). Paul justifies his apostolate by (1) 
his sacrifices for the gospel (11. 23-33), (2) his revelations 
from Christ (12. 1-15), and (3) the fruits of his ministry 
among them (12. 12, 13). 

Later History of the Jerusalem Church 
the church leaders 

At A. D. 50. — It appears (Acts 12. 17) that James 
came to the headship of the church eight or nine years 
previously during the persecution of the Christians by 
King Agrippa I. Pilate, the Roman procurator of Judea 
at the time of the crucifixion, was deprived of office in 
a. D. 36. Other Roman governors took his place until 41, 
when Agrippa was made king of Judea by the emperor 
Claudius. Agrippa died in 44. Once more Roman gov- 
ernors ruled the land. Felix was procurator from 52 to 60. 
Festus (60-62) succeeded Felix and died in office. During 
these years there was continual friction between the Jews 
and their governors. Affairs passed continually from bad 
to worse. Florus (64-66) appropriated the Temple treas- 
ures and so precipitated the Jewish uprising against Rome 
which ended in the destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70). 
The horrors of the siege are vividly described by Josephus. 

During the Rule of Agrippa I. — The apostles now seem 
to have set out on their long-delayed mission to evangelize 
the world. Where they traveled or to whom they preached, 
with the exception of John, is unknown. Paul is aware 
that they are in the field with their wives (1 Corinthians 
9. 5) but he does not indicate the place of their labors. 
It is almost evident that their preaching was confined to the 
Jews. In Galatians 2. 9 Paul affirms that the pillars of 
the Jerusalem church regarded the Jewish mission as 
peculiarly their own and he gives no hint that this agree- 
ment ever was violated. That John in his later years was a 

63 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

resident of Ephesus is the universal testimony of the earli- 
est church fathers. That Andrew is the patron saint of 
Russia, Greece, and Scotland shows the value of the tradi- 
tions concerning the other apostles. 

After the Martyrdom of James. — James suffered martyr- 
dom about a. d. 61. He was succeeded by another relative 
of Jesus, his cousin Simeon, the son of Cleopas. 1 After 
him there was a succession of leaders or bishops of the 
mother church who strictly clung to the observance of 
Jewish ceremonial law. When the Roman army approached 
Jerusalem, the Christians withdrew from the city (Mat- 
thew 24. 15-21), passed over the Jordan, and took up 
residence at Pella, one of the Greek cities of the Decapolis. 2 
From this city Jewish Christianity, in the course of time, 
spread into other districts and lingered along the Jordan 
and the Dead Sea until the fourth century. 

SECTS OF THE LATER JEWISH CHURCH 

Jewish Christianity Loses Its Vitality. — Up until the 
middle of the second century Jewish Christians undoubt- 
edly formed the great majority of believers in Palestine 
and they must have continued for at least another cen- 
tury their attempts to bring Gentile Christians into ob- 
servance of the customs of Judaism; but Jewish Chris- 
tianity eventually lost its vitality through its insistence 
that Christianity was a purified Judaism and, therefore, a 
national religion. It was the fate of this branch of the 
Christian Church to break up into sects that eventually 
became lost into Gentile Christianity, into Judaism, or 
into Mohammedanism. 

The Way They Went. — The divisions within Jewish 
Christianity in Paul's day maintained themselves at least 
for another century after the conference in Jerusalem. 
Justin Martyr, who wrote about a. d. 140, in discussing 
Jewish Christianity makes this clear. During this period 
the terms "Nazarene" and "Ebionite" seem to have been 
applied with little distinction to Jewish Christians. The 

1 Church History, Eusebiua, Volume III, Chapter II. 
i/Wd.. Chapter V. 

64 



THE CHUKCH OP THE CIRCUMCISION 

latter word, meaning "the poor," was either applied to them 
by their enemies in ridicule of their poverty or assumed by 
themselves to express the fact that they were "the poor in 
spirit," as commanded by Jesus. Irenseus, who died about 
200, applies the name "Ebionite" to a sect of Jewish 
Christians who now differed so much in their views from 
the prevailing Christian beliefs that they were regarded as 
heretics. They still regarded the observance of Jewish law 
as essential to salvation. Origen (died about 250), Euse- 
bius (died about 340), and Jerome (died about 420) all 
evidence the breaking up of Jewish Christianity. Those 
among them who more nearly approximated orthodox Chris- 
tianity were probably absorbed into the Syriac-speaking 
Christian churches. The various heretical forms must 
have lingered on till the time of Mohammed and become 
absorbed in the faith of Islam. 

Jewish Christian Literature 

The Epistle of James. — The date of this letter is uncer- 
tain, but it seems to have been written before the breach 
between Jewish and Gentile Christianity was embittered 
by the Judaizers who dogged the footsteps of Paul ; or else 
James, making little reference to the Gentiles, wished to 
express his loyalty to the agreement that the pillars of the 
Jerusalem church should confine their ministry to the Jew. 
-Observe that here, as in the preaching of Peter, Jesus is the 
Messiah (James 1. 1; 2. 1) and that he is the "Lord of 
glory" — that is, he has passed through death, is resurrected, 
and has ascended into heaven. Note the writer's loyalty to 
the law (2. 8-13; 4. 11, 12). The emphasis upon works is 
the Jewish emphasis upon ethical deeds (2. 14-26). The 
faults James condemns are the customary Jewish faults 
that Jesus also denounced. Compare the emphasis in this 
Epistle upon love, mercy, and helpful ministry (1. 26, 27; 
2. 15, 16; 5. 1-6) with the teaching of Jesus (Matthew 
12. 7; 15. 2-9; 23, 23). James feels the selfsame spirit 
of brotherhood which Jesus made fundamental in the king- 
dom of God. 

The Second Epistle of Peter. — This letter was written to 

65 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

those Christians unto whom the apostles themselves, or at 
least some of them, had proclaimed the gospel (2 Peter 
1. 16; 3. 2). This would limit it to Jewish Christians 
(Galatians 2. 9) and without doubt to the Jewish church 
in Palestine, since there is no hint in Paul's letters either 
that the agreement of the Jerusalem conference was broken, 
or that any of the Twelve passed beyond the limits of 
Palestine during Paul's lifetime. If Peter did reach Rome 
during Paul's imprisonment, this letter may have been 
written about a.d. 63. Here too are to be noticed those refer- 
ences to Jewish history and tradition which would not have 
been intelligible to Gentiles (2 Peter 2. 5, 6, 7, 15), the 
angelology (2. 4, 11), the taunt concerning the Messiah's 
advent which would come with keener thrust from Jews 
(3. 4). Since these evil-minded persons against whom the 
Jewish Christian readers of this Epistle are warned are 
Christian brethren (2. 13), and since such fellowship would 
have been impossible between Gentiles and those Jewish 
Christians unto whom the apostles had proclaimed the 
gospel, there is sufficient evidence to believe that Peter, who 
belonged to the liberal group of Jewish Christians, is here 
arraigning those among the church of the circumcision who, 
with time, became more and more reactionary toward 
Judaism. 

The Epistle of Jude. — This letter is an impassioned 
warning to Jewish Christians against evil and heretical 
teachers. This letter was written, with great probability, 
within a few years after the destruction of Jerusalem. 
Such an event was calculated to be the beginning of the 
wilder Ebionite and Gnostic defections from orthodox Jew- 
ish beliefs. The commonly believed views of Christ are 
being assailed (verse 4) ; these heretical views are held by 
those whose lives are morally culpable (verses 16, 18). 
Jude, who had preached among Jews (1 Corinthians 9. 5; 
Galatians 2. 9), was planning a longer treatise for the 
churches unto which he had ministered (verses 3, 17), but 
this work was interrupted by the sudden danger that 
threatened the life of his brethren. That the readers of this 
letter were Jewish Christians is evident. They were Chris- 

66 



THE CHURCH OF THE CIRCUMCISION 

tians (verses 1, 4). That they were Jews is seen from the 
many references to Jewish literature which were unknown 
or obscure to Gentiles. Observe also the distinctly Jewish 
angelology (verses 6, 14). 

The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. — This book, also 
called "Didache" (a teaching), was discovered in manu- 
script in 1873 in a monastery at Constantinople. Al- 
though it is no larger than the Epistle to the Galatians it 
throws a great deal of light on the early church. The 
first six chapters are known as "The Two Ways." This 
portion is believed to have been in circulation by a. d. 70. 
The entire book was written not later than 90. Un- 
doubtedly it is a product of Jewish Christianity, after 
the spirit of James and the early Christian community 
described in the first chapters of Acts. It gives us a pic- 
ture of the worship, the ministry, and the ethical teachings 
of this Jewish Christianity which, although feeling itself 
a spiritualized Judaism, looked sympathetically upon the 
mission to the Gentiles. It therefore possessed sufficient 
catholic spirit to have commended it in wider fields than 
in the Palestinian church of its origin. The Apostolic 
Church Ordinance, which circulated in Egypt about a. d. 
400, is an adaptation of the Didache. The Apostolic 
Constitutions (fourth or fifth century a. d.), containing 
"The Two Ways" almost verbatim, evidence the widely 
extended influence of this early Jewish-Christian book. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

The Literary Contribution of the Church of the Circum- 
cision to the Kingdom. — The church of the circumcision 
has put the entire Christian world in its debt on account 
of its literature. Greater than the works discussed above 
are the Gospels. Matthew, Mark, and John were mem- 
bers and missionaries of the mother church, and their pres- 
ervation and publication of the sayings and deeds of Jesus 
are a priceless gift, sufficient to immortalize these writers 
forever. Apart from any spoken gospel these writings of 
the Jewish Christian Church have had and still must 
have an incalculable power to awaken the human con- 

67 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

science, to fashion loftier ideals, and to quicken in men 
fellowship with God. To estimate their transforming 
power in the language, literature, and social conceptions of 
mankind is impossible. 

The Contribution of Moral and Social Education. — Jew- 
ish Christianity, during its comparatively short-lived exist- 
ence, contributed powerfully to the moral and social educa- 
tion of the world. Take as an example the strong urging 
of James that the spirit of Christian brotherhood is to be 
expressed in deeds. He calls the command "Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor as thyself" "the royal law" (James 2. 8) 
and then demands its visible fulfillment. Not only must 
the old Mosaic commandments be kept by the Christian 
brotherhood, but external conditions such as wealth must 
introduce no distinctions among brethren. This Jewish 
Christianity sounds the ancient Hebrew social note with 
undiminished vigor. Religion that believes and does not 
act, which prays and never labors, is barren. "By works 
a man is justified, and not only by faith" (2. 24) . Wisdom, 
too, is expressed not in words primarily but in good deeds 
(3. 13). Profits unfairly withheld by the capitalist con- 
stitute him a murderer (5. 6). True religion is social 
service and individual morality (1. 27). 

The Spirit of Ethical Brotherhood. — Every extant frag- 
ment even of these Jewish Christian writings breathes this 
spirit of ethical brotherhood. St. Jerome preserves a 
saying from the so-called Nazarene Gospel: "Never be 
glad except when you look with love at your brother." 
Origen hands down to us a similar social feeling in a quota- 
tion from a lost "Gospel of the Hebrews." It is a part 
of the reply of Jesus to the rich young man who claimed 
that he had kept the commandments: "How do you say, 
'I have done the Law and the Prophets'? For it is writ- 
ten in the Law, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself/ 
and lo, there are many brothers of yours, sons of Abraham, 
clothed in filth, dying of hunger, while your house is full 
of many goods, and nothing at all goes out of it to them." 
The Apostolic Constitutions, which carry the teaching of 
"The Two Ways" into the Gentile Christianity of the 

68 



THE CHURCH OF THE CIRCUMCISION 

fourth century, declare, "Thou shalt not say thy goods are 
thine own, for the common participation of the necessaries 
of life is appointed to all men by God." Compare the fol- 
lowing list of evils, taken from "The Two Ways," with 
those condemned in Romans 1. 29-31 and Galatians 5. 19- 
21 : "The Way of Death is known by its wicked practices: 
murders, adulteries, fornications, perjuries, unlawful lusts, 
thefts, idolatries, magic arts, witchcrafts, rapines, false wit- 
nesses, hypocrisies, double-heartedness, deceit, pride, malice, 
insolence, covetousness, obscene talk, jealousy, haughtiness, 
arrogance, impudence, persecution of the good, enmity to 
truth, love of lies, ignorance of righteousness." Paul's 
intense moral consciousness is a Jewish inheritance. 

The Religion of the Kingdom Ethicized. — It is the glory 
of the Hebrew religion and of Christianity that religion is 
thoroughly ethicized. We need only turn to the primitive 
religious beliefs of native Africans or the religious prac- 
tices of non-Christian India and China to realize the incom- 
parable glory of our Christian heritage. It was the moral 
teaching of Judaism broadened, spiritualized, and given a 
depth of social feeling by Jesus which finds expression in 
the more liberal Jewish Christian communities and, through 
them, becomes the ethical basis of Christianity's appeal to 
the world. This is glory enough for any people. It is a 
far step in the long coming kingdom of God. 

The Wandering Jew 

Hammered Into Thinking. — It is not the confetti but 
the hammer that hits a man which sets him thinking and 
acting. We have Galatians and 2 Corinthians because Paul 
was hammered. Those sincere legalists who dogged the 
steps of Paul from city to city and land to land drove him 
out of legalism into Christ. Dead to law, alive in Christ, 
is the gospel into which their persecution drove him. No 
slight "peace out of pain" this ; no faint-scented rose bloom- 
ing in the midst of thorns. 

For a Cause. — It is every man's duty to be sincere and to 
feel strongly. It is only such who sacrifice for a cause. It 

69 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

takes a cause to create heroic life. A poor cause is better 
than none. These Jews who tramped to Antioch in pur- 
suit of Paul did not live vainly. It was a weary trail they 
took, and Paul outran them. But our Tarsian evangelist 
undoubtedly was chased by them into a world-challenging 
interpretation of his Damascus experience. Never damn 
the man who persecutes you. It may be God has loaned 
him his hammer for your good. 

On Our Trail. — But these troublers of the Gentile Israel 
were not the only Jewish wanderers: the Hebrew's royal 
law has dogged us through the centuries. It has given man 
no rest. It gives the Christian no quiet now. "Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor" — not his wife nor her husband — "as 
thyself." What a royal law it is ! Thou shalt love thy 
poor neighbor, thy rich neighbor, thy ignorant neighbor, 
thy dirty neighbor, thy criminal neighbor, thy crazy neigh- 
bor, thy brutal, covetous, stingy neighbor, as thyself. My 
God, what an awful law this is ! It breaks up our selfish- 
ness, our self-complacency, our sense of perfection. It hum- 
bles us in shame. Must we be dragged down to the level 
of living neighborly with all people, black and yellow, by 
this dog of a wandering Jewish law? God help us; we 
too must fall into the arms of Jesus Christ. 

A Moral Pointed. — The Twelve in their wanderings also 
point a moral. Sent to "the lost sheep of the house of 
Israel," they themselves were lost. "Ye shall not have gone 
through the cities of Israel, till the Son of man be come." 
Twice lost, who knows precisely where they proclaimed 
their risen Messianic Lord? Who knows the testing of 
their faith by his delayed coming? Wanderers out into 
a double darkness, forgotten, lost! Lost? No, a thou- 
sand times no ! No good deed is ever lost ; no earnest soul 
ever is crushed by darkness. From every village the Twelve 
entered there streamed forth love and light into the farthest 
corner of the world. The sick they healed have sent the 
radiant rays of their faith through the centuries. The 
synagogues where they were scourged, the tribunals where 
their mission was challenged, the house which closed its 
door against them, have but testified by their persecution 

70 



THE CHURCH OF THE CIRCUMCISION 

to the glory of their lives. No good deed ever dies ; no good 
life ever is silenced; no true faith ever loses its shining. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Why were Hellenistic Jews best fitted to be mission- 
aries to the Gentiles? 

2. Discuss the subject of debate at the Jerusalem confer- 
ence of a. d. 50. State the position taken by Paul, James, and 
John. 

3. Why did the stricter Jews make the demands they did? 

4. What effect did the outcome have on the Gentile branch 
of the Christian Church? 

5. What was the difference in the position taken by the 
three factions in Jewish Christianity? 

6. Who were some of the leaders of the Jerusalem church at 
a. d. 50? during the rule of Agrippa I? after the death of 
James? 

7. How came Jewish Christianity to lose its power? 

8. Where did this wing of the early church go? 

9. Which of the New-Testament writings come under this 
head? 

10. Discuss them as Jewish writings. 

11. In what way did the literature of the church of the 
circumcision contribute to the Kingdom's progress? 

12. Which of the Gospel writers were members of the 
mother church? 

13. What moral and social values do the Jewish Christian 
writings emphasize? 

Illustkative Headings 

The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 549-88. 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages, 69-95. 

The Wars of the Jews, Josephus, Books, V-VI. 

Article "Didache" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic Church, 
Hastings. 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume II, pages 97-120. 



71 



CHAPTEE VI 

THE MOEAL PROBLEMS OF A GENTILE PARISH 

Feom occasional references in preceding chapters it 
may be seen that Christianity had a far greater ethical task 
in Gentilic communities than in Jewish circles. Since it 
was the church of the uncircumcision which carried the 
Christian conception of the kingdom of God beyond Jew- 
ish boundaries into the world's life, it is very important to 
understand the social evils this rising Gentilic Christianity 
faced and the manner in which it conquered them. 

Pagan Corinth 

The Location of Corinth. — Corinth undoubtedly pos- 
sessed the most commanding position in Greece. Situated 
on the northern slope of the steep mountain Acrocorinthus, 
which rose eighteen hundred feet above the level of the 
sea, and within a few miles of the narrow isthmus that 
joins the Peloponnesus to northern Greece, Corinth com- 
manded the highways from north to south and east to west. 
Corinth controlled two harbors. Lecheum, on the Corin- 
thian Gulf, with which ancient Corinth was connected by 
walls, was the port for the trade of Italy. Cenchrea, a 
few miles distant, across the isthmus on the Saronic Gulf, 
was the shipping point for the east. On account of the 
difficult navigation in rounding the Peloponnesus, mer- 
chants coming from Asia and from Italy found it desirable 
to use these ports and transport their lading by land from 
the one to the other. Corinth collected toll on all imports 
and exports. This commerce and the Isthmian games cele- 
brated at Corinth every second year brought vast numbers 
to the city, gave it a cosmopolitan population, and made it 
wealthy. 

Corinth's Slave Population. — Such a city was sure to 
become demoralized in a day when there were no strong 

72 



MOEAL PROBLEMS 

forces working for the regeneration of society. The worst 
from Asia Minor, Egypt, and Rome found a home in 
Corinth. This city was the first to introduce into the 
Greek world those gladiatorial combats which became the 
fashion of Rome but which were so repugnant to the Greeks. 
The only actual traces of an amphitheater in the Greek 
world are said to be at Corinth. 1 Like that of other cities 
of its time its population was largely a slave population. 
At one time there were four hundred and sixty thousand 
slaves living in Corinth. In Greece, except at Athens, 
the slave had no rights and enjoyed no protection from the 
brutality of his master. 

Licentious Conditions in Corinth. — Sexual licentiousness 
was greatly accentuated in Corinth by the worship of 
Aphrodite. Strabo, who knew the Corinth of Paul's day, 
wrote that the temple of this goddess had more than a 
thousand women, courtesans, dedicated to her service, and 
that the city was enriched by the multitudes who resorted 
thither on account of these women. Masters of ships and 
soldiers rich with the booty of war frequented the city and 
freely squandered all their money upon these harlots. So 
notorious was the profligacy, and so large were the sums 
spent in sensuality, that the proverb arose: "Every man 
cannot go to Corinth." Plutarch writes with little concern 
of the excessive prostitution of his times. Fornication was 
scarcely incompatible with good manners. While the Greek 
wife was kept indoors and was commonly faithful to her 
husband, no shame attached to any relation between either 
married or single men with those women who lived by their 
bodies. 

The Founding of the Church at Corinth 

Paul's Problem at Corinth.— Read Acts 18. 1-18. Paul 
arrived in Corinth apparently in the autumn of a. d. 50 or 
51 — perhaps as late as 53. According to custom Paul 
preached Christ in the synagogue. For some weeks there 
was no open break with the Jews. Emboldened by the pres- 

1 The Silver Age in the Greek World, Mahaffy, page 321. 

73 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

ence of Silas and Timothy, Paul made his position so clear 
that fellowship with the synagogal community was no 
longer possible. His preaching, however, won certain not- 
able converts. Observe the service rendered Paul by the 
Roman proconsul Gallio. This Gallio was the older brother 
of Seneca, the famous Roman moral philosopher. The 
church at Corinth was made up largely of the Gentile 
population, whose moral failures have been sketched above. 
Note the list of wrongdoers condemned in 1 Corinthians 
6. 9, 10, and observe Paul's words : "And such were some of 
you." In the light of these prevalent sins consider the 
ethical task of Christianity to construct an exemplary 
Christian community. 

Pastoral Supervision by Letter. — Paul set sail from Cen- 
chrea for Ephesus (Acts 18. 18 f.) after an eighteen-month 
ministry in Corinth. However, he did not lose touch with 
or interest in Corinth. Sailings were frequent between 
these cities; and as there must have been merchants and 
seamen among the Corinthian Christians, Paul kept in- 
formed concerning the church which up to this time had 
engrossed so much of his labor. He was visited during 
his three years' stay in Ephesus at different times by Chris- 
tians from Corinth (1 Corinthians 1. 11; 16. 17), and 
several letters passed between Paul and this church. There 
are records of four such letters written by Paul. First 
Corinthians 5. 9 refers to the first of these four letters. 
This Epistle is no longer extant. It is believed, however, 
that 2 Corinthians 6. 14 to 7. 1 is a fragment of this lost 
letter, which has become embedded in 2 Corinthians. Com- 
pare the subject referred to in 1 Corinthians 5. 9 with the 
theme treated in 2 Corinthians 6. 14 to 7. 1. It is easy to 
believe that this latter section is indeed a portion of this 
lost first Epistle. Paul's second letter to the Corinthian 
church is our present 1 Corinthians. This letter was 
occasioned by tidings of disorders in the Corinthian church 
(1 Corinthians 1. 11) and by certain questions put to Paul 
in a letter from the Christian community in Corinth (1 
Corinthians 7. 1). After the writing of this letter Paul 
sent Timothy to Corinth to correct the evils dealt with in 

74 



MOEAL PHOBLEMS 

the letter (1 Corinthians 4. 17; 16. 10, 11). Paul expected 
to visit Corinth soon and to put right the disorders that 
were scandalizing the church (1 Corinthians 4. 19, 21). 

Paul's Second Visit to Corinth. — In the meantime the 
Judaizers arrived in Corinth (2 Corinthians 3. 1), and 
Paul made this promised second visit (2 Corinthians 12. 
14; 13. 1). Neither Timothy nor Paul was able to disci- 
pline the headstrong church, and this visit of the apostle 
was not a happy one (2 Corinthians 2. 1). During the one 
or two months of this visit he seems to have been worsted 
by his adversaries and returned to Ephesus discouraged and 
disheartened. In the midst of affliction, anguish, and weep- 
ing Paul wrote a third letter to the Corinthians (2 Corin- 
thians 2. 4; 7. 8). This letter accomplished what his pres- 
ence had been unable to do (2 Corinthians 7. 8-16) : 
Church discipline and Paul's authority were restored among 
the Corinthian Christians. 

Paul's Joy Restored: His Third Visit. — There is good 
reason for believing that this third letter is now a part of 
our 2 Corinthians. Eead 2 Corinthians, chapters 10 to 
13, in the light of the situation sketched above and consider 
whether this section does not fill the requirements of the 
supposedly lost letter. The Judaizers, taking advantage 
of the factions in the church and the inexperience of these 
Christians, had attacked the gospel preached by both Paul 
and his apostolate. This attack, coupled with the insub- 
ordination of the church in regard to expelling him who 
was guilty of incest, compelled Paul to justify his whole 
ministry among them. Not long after writing his third 
letter the riot occurred at Ephesus, and Paul, anxious to 
learn more of the situation at Corinth, set out toward Mace- 
donia (Acts 20. 1). Evidently he had arranged to meet 
Titus, who had carried this third letter to Corinth at 
Troas (2 Corinthians 2. 13; 7. 13). But, not finding him 
there, he journeyed on with heaviness of spirit along the way 
Titus was to come to meet him. Somewhere in Macedonia 
Paul and Titus met, and the apostle was informed of the 
success of his third letter. The burden of his sorrow and 
anxiety was lifted, and joyfully he sent his fourth letter 

75 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

to the church that had cost him so much pain. This fourth 
Epistle is our 2 Corinthians with the exception of the sec- 
tions assigned above to previous letters. After dispatch- 
ing this letter Paul passed on to Corinth, where he abode 
some three months. Thence he returned through Mace- 
donia on his way to Jerusalem. Thus, Paul's guidance of 
the Christian community of Corinth extended through a 
period of about five years. 

The Conflict With the Decadent Morals of 
Paganism 

The Personnel of the Corinthian Church. — What is 

known of Crispus? (1 Corinthians 1. 14; Acts 18. 8) ; of 
Gaius ? (Eomans 16. 23 ; 1 Corinthians 1. 14) ; of Eras- 
tus? (Eomans 16. 23); of Stephanas? (1 Corinthians 
1. 16; 16. 17). It is conjectured that Stephanas was some- 
what well to do, and that Fortunatus and Achaicus were 
his slaves. Certain women prominent enough to be named 
also belonged to this church. Chloe (1 Corinthians 1. 11) 
evidently was a woman of substance, and Phoebe, who 
lived at Cenchrea (Eomans 16. 1), a woman of distinc- 
tion. Yet these converts were the exception. The majority 
of the Corinthian church were not from the Jews but from 
Gentiles (1 Corinthians 12. 2) and from the poor and 
ignorant (1 Corinthians 1. 26). Many of them had been 
guilty of the grosser evils of pagan society (1 Corinthians 
1. 28; 6. 9-11). Paul faced at Corinth a far different 
task than confronted the missionaries of the church of the 
circumcision, and much more difficult than he hitherto 
had met in the Gentile world. 

The Development of a Christian Conscience in Matters 
of Sex. — With converts drawn from the licentious cess- 
pool of Corinthian life the wonder is not that lust appears 
in the Corinthian church and is defended by the church, 
but that a Christian community could be raised up in the 
midst of this degenerate pagan society. After eighteen 
months in Corinth even Paul states that the Christian who 
proposes to cut off all dealings with fornicators would by 

76 



MOEAL PKOBLEMS 

such decision have to quit the world (1 Corinthians 5. 9). 
Consider in these circumstances the case of incest which 
appeared in the Corinthian church (1 Corinthians 5. 1-2). 
Paul demands that this guilty man shall be expelled from 
the church (1 Corinthians 5. 3-8). We have seen that 
neither Timothy nor Paul was able to induce the church to 
discipline its guilty member. This bold instance of lust 
did not stand alone: others of the church still practiced 
their pagan immorality (2 Corinthians 12. 21; 7. 1). 
After Paul's third letter was written, the Corinthians 
finally expelled the man in question. This action brought 
him to his senses, and on repentance and upon the recom- 
mendation of Paul he was received again into church fel- 
lowship (2 Corinthians 2. 5-11). 

Paul Discusses Marriage. — In connection with this sex 
licentiousness Paul discusses the question of marriage. He 
could not so frankly have discussed the married life had 
he not been dealing with converts only a little removed 
from the debasing practices of Corinthian life. The Chris- 
tian ideal of marriage is the fidelity of husband and wife 
to each other (1 Corinthians 7. 1-7). The widely prevail- 
ing and little-condemned practice of fornication on the 
part of married men must be given up ; it cannot be toler- 
ated by Christian ethics. There was also the question of 
marriages in which one of the parties was yet a pagan. If 
2 Corinthians 6. 14 was a part of Paul's first letter, he may 
well have raised the question he answers in 1 Corinthians 
7. 12-16. In verse 15 does Paul base the permitted divorce 
upon moral grounds or upon difference of religious beliefs ? 
Does Paul justify divorce for reasons other than it was 
permitted in the teaching of Jesus? Observe that Paul 
encourages widows and maids to remain unmarried. On 
occasion of new marriage Paul insists upon community of 
faith (1 Corinthians 7. 39). 

The Development of the Christian Ethics of Property. — 
Not only did the earliest group of Corinthian Christians 
contain fornicators (1 Corinthians 5. 11) but the new 
members did not rid themselves immediately of their 
former business practices. There were yet among them 

77 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

some who were covetous and extortioners (1 Corinthians 
5. 11, 13). Such men were sure to enter into suits before 
the civil courts to maintain their supposed interests. Read 
1 Corinthians 6. 1-10. Although Paul advocated no commu- 
nistic ideals he never ceased to insist that the Christian com- 
munity was a brotherhood, and that all property interests 
must be dealt with in the light of this ideal. This spirit 
was woefully lacking in the common meal eaten by the con- 
gregation in connection with the Eucharist. It was not 
the democratic fellowship which Paul evidently had de- 
signed on the model of the twelve apostles (1 Corinthians 
11. 21, 22) but its mockery; wherein the wealthier were 
gorged and drunken, and the poor went hungry. Close 
reading of the Epistles to the Corinthians indicates that 
Paul had a great deal of trouble to get these people to feel 
any bond with other Christian communities. Especially 
were they disinclined to contribute to the relief of the needy 
church in Palestine. 

Slavery.— Read 1 Corinthians 7. 20-24. Why did not this 
Christian gospel set itself to the emancipation of the slave ? 
To determine this consider (1) the general Christian 
expectation of the nearness of the second coming of Christ 
to set up the new social order of the kingdom of God on 
earth (1 Corinthians 7. 29-32; Matthew 10. 23; Revelation 
22. 10-12) ; and (2) Paul's consciousness of such an inner 
heightening and enrichment of life in Christ (Galatians 
2. 20) that outward circumstances possess indifferent valua- 
tion: the slave becomes free in Christ (1 Corinthians 7. 
22 f.), and the master becomes Christ's slave. When this 
latter principle is truly grasped, and the expectation of 
Christ's speedy return no longer operates, what would be 
the effect on human slavery of the proclamation of the 
Christian gospel ? 

Social Relations With Paganism. — There was no imme- 
diate alteration in the external conditions of these Corin- 
thian Christians. They lived in the same houses, had the 
same neighbors, were confronted daily with the same civic 
life. Not all their relatives turned Christian. Most of 
their friends were still immersed in paganism. Must they 

78 



MORAL PROBLEMS 

no more have company with idolaters and accept no invita- 
tions to dinner (1 Corinthians 10. 27) ? Then must they 
indeed "go out of the world." It was not easy to break 
these old ties. If 2 Corinthians 6. 14 to 7. 1 is a fragment 
of Paul's lost first letter, Paul at first demanded that 
Christians should have no dealing with pagans. He never 
withdrew his main contention that Christianity and idola- 
try are utterly incompatible (1 Corinthians 10. 7, 14). lie 
denies that sacrifices offered to idols are sacrifices offered 
to Deity; they are offered to demons (1 Corinthians 10. 
19-21), and with demons Christians must have nothing to 
do. Therefore, banquets in pagan temples, which were 
connected with sacrifices, are forbidden to the Christian 
(1 Corinthians 8. 10; 10. 21). Paul in his second com- 
munication with the Corinthians on this vexed question of 
social affairs does not forbid Christians to accept invita- 
tions to dinner given by their pagan friends, but he at 
least hints that it may not be advisable to accept them 
(1 Corinthians 10. 27). Undoubtedly the meat on a pagan 
man's table had been killed as a sacrifice; but if this fact 
were not expressly pointed out, and the intimation made 
that a Christian ought to refrain from such meat (1 Cor- 
inthians 10. 27, 28), there was no obligation to avoid such 
foods. In the same way a Christian might purchase the 
food at the market (1 Corinthians 10. 25). However, if 
any Christian believes it wrong to eat such flesh, the true 
Christian will eat no such meat for his brother's sake (1 
Corinthians 8. 13). In all such matters there is only one 
deciding principle: All that the Christian does must be 
done to the glory of God (1 Corinthians 10. 31; 8. 9). 

Problems of Church Discipline 

Factions in the Church at Corinth. — Examine 1 Corin- 
thians 1. 10-12; 3. 4; 2 Corinthians 12. 20, and consider 
the extent to which the Corinthian church was afflicted with 
party divisions. Upon what had Paul sought to base the 
faith and experience of the Corinthian church? (1 Corin- 
thians 1. 18, 23; 2. 2; 15. 1-4). In rallying around party 

79 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

names they seem to be glorying in the preacher and boast- 
ing in some special teaching which is their possession alone. 
These party leaders do not know all: all their finest wis- 
dom seems foolishness in comparison with the wisdom of 
God (3. 18-23). Therefore, no teacher or minister should 
be made a party leader. Glory in no man : rather make all 
their teaching yours and humbly draw near to Christ. 
Observe another argument of Paul (1 Corinthians 4. 
1-5) to reduce these divisions. There is only one founda- 
tion, and the day comes when the steward-builder of the 
Church of God will meet a searching judgment (3. 10-15). 
Even Paul, conscious of no fault, must await this judgment 
of God (4. 4). Finally consider whether Paul (4. 6-17) 
means that these factions believe that later teachers brought 
the Corinthians something fundamental to the faith which 
they did not receive from Paul. 

The Position of Woman. — Read again 1 Corinthians 11. 
2-16. What is Paul's fundamental position regarding 
woman's rights? What reason is given by Paul for the 
veiling of woman ? What is Paul's argument for the wear- 
ing of long hair by women? Examine 1 Corinthians 14. 
34, 35. Was Paul here giving expression to Jewish or 
Gentile views ? It should be remembered that in Paul's day 
respectable Greek married women were forbidden to visit 
the theater or heathen temples unveiled. The woman of 
loose morals went everywhere with uncovered face. 

Disorders in Connection With the Eucharist. — Examine 
1 Corinthians 11. 17-34. Note the custom of a common 
meal followed by the Holy Communion. What practice 
does Paul here condemn ? What is the reason for this want 
of f raternalism ? What remedy does Paul propose ? What 
contribution does his proposal make to Christian social 
ethics ? 

Disorders in Public Worship. — Read attentively 1 
Corinthians 12. 1-31 and consider whether or not the 
spiritual exaltation that these Corinthian Christians 
experienced tended toward the advantage or the dis- 
advantage of Christian morals. To what extent would 
the possession of such powers as indicated in 12. 8-10 

80 



MOEAL PEOBLEMS 

make for pride, egotism, insubordination, the want of em- 
phasis upon immoral acts, and the neglect of the normal 
expressions of religion in business, social fellowships, and 
the family, for abnormal and unusual ecstasies ? To what 
extent does Paul encourge healings, miracles, prophecies, 
and speaking in tongues? What relative value does he 
assign to those various exercises of religion? What direc- 
tion would Paul have our Christian enthusiasm take ? How 
far is this a genuine and permanent contribution to the 
ethics of religious emotion? 

The Resurrection of the Body. — Bead 1 Corinthians 
15. 1-58. Examine 15. 1-12, 29, and state what teach- 
ing concerning the resurrection of the body had been 
a part of Paul's preaching in Corinth. In determin- 
ing this consider whether the discussion in this fif- 
teenth chapter is new material or a restatement of 
what Paul previously had taught them. Consult 7. 1 ; 15. 
1-3, and state whether a doubt or denial of the resurrec- 
tion of Jesus or of the possibility of a resurrection from 
the dead had arisen in the Corinthian church, and, if so, 
what could have caused this questioning of Paul's preach- 
ing. Compare with this chapter 1 Thessalonians 4. 13 f . 
What was Paul's teaching concerning the resurrection of 
Christians? of non-Christians? Was the doctrine of the 
resurrection a new belief for the Gentiles ? What was the 
value of this belief for the task of the ethical reconstruction 
of the Gentile world? 

The Source of This Ethical Power 

It is evident that the Christian preaching in Corinth 
introduced into the city a new ethical life. Christianity 
brought new moral ideals to the masses of the Gentile 
world and furnished a new strength to live toward these 
ideals. The object and end of Christ's death were to bring 
men into a new life with God (1 Corinthians 1. 30; 2 Corin- 
thians 5. 15), a life that rose into new moral expression. 
It was the conviction that God had opened to man a fel- 
lowship; or, rather, that this Christ, who had died and 

81 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMERS 

risen from the grave, came into the believer's life and pos- 
sessed it so thoroughly (2 Corinthians 5. 17; Galatians 2. 
20) that a new life really was constituted in the Christian's 
soul. Such an experience, such a communion with God, 
brought to the Gentile convert such a spiritual heightening 
of life that not only were new moral values of conduct cre- 
ated, but also new powers of feeling and will were created 
which made the Christian believer the victor over the com- 
mon and contemptible impulses of the world. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

A New Evaluation and Achievement of Life. — Paul's 
ministry in Corinth was a distinct and powerful contribu- 
tion to the developing kingdom of God. The evils of pagan- 
ism were unusually accented in this commercial capital. 
Into this licentious, litigious, cosmopolitan, self-assertive, 
slave-holding, and slave-held population a new evaluation 
and achievement of life dawned in the ministry of Paul. 
Christian preaching in Corinth was done in the expectation 
of the near destruction of the nations and the realized glory 
of God's kingdom; yet the gospel, in summoning the in- 
dividual to set his house in order for this judgment, called 
him to such a thoroughgoing reconstruction of his life that 
the whole social order of which he was a part was inevitably 
affected : so that it was wrought out at Corinth more clearly 
than in any previously evangelized city that Christianity 
must set itself also to the reconstruction of the social 
order. This was being accomplished in Corinth by creating 
a new society within the boundaries of paganism through 
the calling of individuals out of the old life into the new. 

Christianity United Religion and Ethics. — The immedi- 
ate severance with paganism was along two lines: (1) sex 
relationships and (2) idolatry. But the principles here laid 
down of righteousness, justice, and love must in time either 
soften the inequalities of wealth and slavery or else be 
slighted and denied. Christianity in Corinth, in the spirit 
of the Hebrew prophets and of Jesus, firmly united religion 
and ethics. It was this grounding of morality in religion 

82 



MORAL PEOBLEMS 

and this evaluation of religion in moral terms which event- 
ually undermined the old social order of the empire. 

Sunrise 

Paul, Herald of Sunrise. — Dawn is nature's most fasci- 
nating miracle. The first sure hints of a radiant June day 
are pale-green waves of dawn flooding the summit of hills. 
Then, steadily within a half hour, faint rose tints fill the 
green sea and turn the dark islands of the upper sky into 
torchbearers of day. The moon slowly dims in a sky eagerly 
turning blue. Birds begin their accustomed matins. 
Steadily the transformation into open day goes on : clouds 
of rare beauty, ships with golden sails, float up the sea of 
growing light. The horizon turns pink and brightly red 
— then, lo ! the King of day appears to rule his empire of 
a world. The ministry of Paul was God's sunrise in the 
Greek world. 

Religion an Endless Impulse to Moral Achievement. — 
Is it not a rare dawn to discover that religion is an end- 
less impulse to moral achievement ? The ethical life of an 
individual and of the community never yet has reached its 
final triumph. Does your religion impel you to new ethical 
convictions? Is it endlessly classifying new wrongs for 
you? Fornication and idolatry were little or no wrong in 
Corinth until this Christian tentmaker moved into that 
city. What old views and practices has your religion now 
made impossible for you ? If you should give the Spirit of 
Christ full sway in your life, what moral changes would 
still take place in you and in your friends ? 

False Courtesy. — Where is the denser darkness of our 
lives? Does it not lie across our social relationships? 
The Corinthian Christian was in the greatest danger when 
he became a guest. It is the social convention still, making 
its appeal to our sense of courtesy, which dims the witness 
that ever should be uttered by the Christian. It is the 
social glass of beer or wine, the social game of cards, the 
dance of the social set, which has clouded the sunrise in 
many a life. We do not wish to be queer, old-fashioned, 

83 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

considered rude or indifferent to the efforts of our host and 
hostess to entertain us. We commit moral suicide to 
appear polite. There are no homes in which it is not 
lawful for a true follower of Jesus Christ to be a guest; 
but there are many homes in which it is not expedient. It 
is better to lose membership in a club than to lose one's 
soul. 

The Day Dawns When Life Centers Round the Will of 
God. — "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever 
ye do, do all to the glory of God." Life does not lower 
in limiting desire to the direction of the divine will. It 
blossoms. It unfolds. It bursts into glory. New ethical 
vision has come when the Christian says, "All things are 
lawful ; but not all things are expedient." It is the unen- 
cumbered runner who reaches the goal. 

Are You Willing to Be Imitated? — "Be ye imitators of 
me, even as I also am of Christ." Can you take this rela- 
tion to your non-Christian neighbors? Does your life 
make this stirring moral appeal to your community ? Has 
the Christian life really dawned in you ? You are or ought 
to be the light of the world. Do your political views, your 
opinions, your education, your ideas regarding taxes, your 
conceptions of religion, differ from those of your fellow 
Christians ? Is it difficult to call followers of other creeds 
your brethren? "No man can say, Jesus is Lord, but 
in the Holy Spirit." Behind all sincere Christian differ- 
ence is the one Christ. Whoever owns him Lord is citizen 
of the better day about to be. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What natural conditions gave to Corinth its ancieiit 
importance? State other circumstances that helped. 

2. State the influence on thinking, of such a great slave 
population as Corinth had. 

3. In what way did the worship of Aphrodite affect the 
daily life of her worshipers? of the new converts to Chris- 
tianity? 

4. Account for the different ethical tasks of Christianity 
among Jews and Gentiles. Why this difference? 

5. What weight would Old-Testament proof have with these 
converts? 

84 



MORAL PROBLEMS 

6. To what extent did Judaizers complicate Paul's problem 
at Corinth? 

7. Explain the part which Paul's letters to the Corinthians 
play in his oversight of them. 

8. How did Paul deal with questions of sex? marriage? prop- 
erty? slavery? social relations with paganism? 

9. What value for the ethical reconstruction of the Gentile 
world had belief in the resurrection of the body? 

10. To what extent were new victorious powers of feeling 
and will created by faith in Christ? 

11. In what way did Christianity set itself to the task of 
social reconstruction in cities like Corinth? 

12. Why did the grounding of morality in religion eventu- 
ally undermine the old social order of the empire? 

References for Illustrative Readings 

Paul and His Epistles, Hayes, pages 189-268. 
The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages, 262-73, 290-324. 
The Apostle Paul, Sabatier, pages 156-84. 
The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 172-79. 
Article "Corinth" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic Church, 
Hastings. 



85 



CHAPTEE VII 

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OP EARLY 
CHRISTIANITY 

In oub discussion of the moral problems of slavery 
(Chapter VI) the fact was revealed that the acceptance 
of the gospel must have started innumerable questions con- 
cerning business methods and occupations. The slightest 
reflection upon the ideals and practices of Gentile life 
makes clear that the prevalent immorality and idolatry of 
the first centuries of our era not only would close to the 
Christian many modes of livelihood but also would be the 
basis of a vast deal of irritation, antagonism, and persecu- 
tion on the part of the Gentiles. The widespread accept- 
ance of Christianity undoubtedly jeopardized many a busi- 
ness enterprise. Much of the persecution of the early 
Christians was due wholly to the economic disturbances 
that the acceptance of the new religion created. When any 
considerable number in a community became Christians, 
much confusion was introduced into the ranks of labor, and 
markets were considerably affected. Likewise, the changed 
modes of livelihood among the Christians themselves occa- 
sioned by their new faith worked much economic hardship 
in the church. 

The Christian Conception of Labob 

The Gospel Not a Call to Idleness. — Read attentively 1 
Thessalonians 4. 11 and observe that a part of PauPs 
preaching at Thessalonica had been an injunction to the 
newly won disciples not to throw up their jobs. A few 
months had elapsed after his visit, and now he feels the 
necessity of repeating that the gospel has not called them to 
idleness. What aspects of the Christian message could be 
construed into a dislike of or an indifference toward labor ? 
Consider in this connection the early Christian expectation 

86 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

of the speedy return of Christ (4. 15-18). Read 2 Thessa- 
lonians 3. 6-15 and note especially verses 10, 11. Our 
Biblical sources do not indicate that this antiwork spirit 
existed elsewhere than at Thessalonica. Consider also the 
neglect of vocations by the Jerusalem community (Acts 2. 
44-47). Was the Christian idea of wealth also a factor in 
the encouragement of idleness (1 Timothy 6. 5-11) ? The 
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles shows the Christian con- 
ception of labor at a somewhat later period : "But let every- 
one that cometh in the name of the Lord be received. If 
he wishes to settle with you, being a craftsman, let him 
work for and eat his bread. But if he has no craft, 
according to your wisdom provide how he shall live as a 
Christian among you, but not in idleness. If he will not 
do this he is trafficking upon Christ. Beware of such 
men." 

Christianity the First Great Force to Ameliorate Condi- 
tions of Slaves. — Christianity brought no immediate eco- 
nomic relief to the slave. In Corinth (1 Corinthians 7. 
20) Paul laid down the explicit injunction that the gospel 
was not to disturb the economic relationships of the com- 
munity. He seems never to have faced the fact that Chris- 
tian brotherhood must mean equal opportunity to accumu- 
late and enjoy the physical comforts of life. Yet Chris- 
tianity did do much for slavery in those earliest days. 
Slavery was a widespread evil during the first centuries of 
our era, and Christians of means generally were slave- 
holders. But Christianity acted as a check upon the power 
of the master. Cruel masters were the rule, and not the 
exception, and many a slave was brutally tortured for a 
slighted task or his mistress's whim. While not all pagan 
slave householders were so brutalized as those whom Ju- 
venal depicts, 1 Christianity was the first powerful and wide- 
spread force at work to ameliorate the conditions of the 
slave. 

Trade Antagonism at Ephesus 

Ephesus and Artemis. — Extensive ruins, the richest in 

* Satire VI. 

87 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Asia Minor, still mark the site of the city so great in Paul's 
day and already twelve centuries old. The river Cayster 
once emptied into the sea near the city, but through the 
centuries it has poured its silt into the Bay of Ephesus 
until that bay is no more ; the shore is a harborless, sandy 
coast line, and Ephesus lies five or six miles inland. As 
early as b. c. 1200 the scattered villages looked for guidance 
to the goddess Artemis and to her priests of a temple at 
Ephesus. Greeks coming from Athens at about b. c. 1100 
founded the first city, which, though under many con- 
querors, ever was dominated by the Ephesian goddess Arte- 
mis (or Diana) until long past New-Testament times. 

Great Is Diana.— Observe the language of Acts 19. 27. 
"Diana, . . . whom all Asia and the world worshipeth," 
was no empty boast. Ancient writers speak of her wide- 
spread worship. Various cities in Spain and Gaul possessed 
temples of the Ephesian model. The founders of Mar- 
seilles brought with them from Ephesus a shrine and 
priestess of the goddess and built a temple to Diana and 
copied the Ephesian forms of worship. 2 Strabo 3 writes of 
Elis in Greece, "The whole country is full of temples dedi- 
cated to Diana." A shrine of Diana copied after the tem- 
ple at Ephesus stood in Paul's day on the Aventine hill 
in Rome. Borsippa, in the Tigris-Euphrates valley, was a 
city sacred to this goddess. Strabo records also that when 
Xenophon returned from his wars in Asia and settled on 
his estate among the wooded hills which ridge the rich 
valley of the Alpheus, he erected on his place a little temple 
to Diana after the mother temple in Ephesus. 

The Beginnings of Christianity at Ephesus. — Read Acts 
18. 18-28 and state the beginnings of Christianity at Ephe- 
sus. According to Romans 16. 5 this first preaching of 
Paul was not without results. Acts 18. 22 implies that 
Paul paid a brief visit to Jerusalem and then, returning to 
Antioch, spent some time there. Read Acts 19. 1 to 20. 1. 
Two points are especially interesting : Paul "reasons daily 
in the school of Tyrannus." The "school of Tyrannus" was 

2 Strabo, Book IV, Chapter I, Seotion 4. 
8 Book VIII, Chapter III, Section 12. 

88 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

a lecture hall probably connected with one of the city's 
gymnasiums. The Bezan text states that Paul's daily lec- 
tures, or sermons, were from the fifth to the tenth hour. 
Such halls were in common use in Greek cities by gram- 
marians, poets, and philosophers to bring their writings 
and views before the public. Paul apparently introduces 
the gospel as philosophical lectures. This use of a mission 
hall is the oldest example of what has become a common 
mode of Christian missionary activity. Congregations for 
worship, however, still met in private houses (1 Corin- 
thians 16. 19). Of equal interest in this mission propa- 
ganda is its widespread success. Examine 1 Corinthians 
16. 9, 19; Acts 19. 10, and observe the extent of the 
Christian mission. 

The Importance of the Trade Guilds. — The Greek and 
Eoman society of the first Christian centuries abounded 
with trade guilds. Workingmen everywhere were banded 
together for the protection of manufacture and trade and 
for social fellowship. More than eighty different trades in 
the city of Eome were organized into guilds. Dealers in 
oil, wine, fish, and grain, and workers in wood, cloth, iron, 
and the precious metals were found everywhere. Promi- 
nent at Ephesus was the guild of the silversmiths. Wor- 
shipers of Diana presented her with innumerable dedica- 
tory gifts. These usually were shrines, a niche containing 
an image of the goddess. These shrines were miniature 
copies of the Ephesian temple and were left as offerings 
in the great temple, kept in the homes of the people, and 
buried with their dead. Read Acts 19. 23-41. What two 
reasons did Demetrius offer for opposing Christianity? 
According to him what was Paul's preaching concerning the 
Deity ? What peculiarly accentuated the economic situation 
in Ephesus? In what way did the attack by the silver- 
smiths and allied artisans end? 

Economic Disturbances in Bithynia 

The Attitude Toward Christians in Bithynia. — Bithynia 
was a Eoman province of Asia Minor stretching along the 
southern shore of the Black Sea. Paul had wished to 

89 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND REFOEMEES 

preach the gospel in this province (Acts 16. 7), but "the 
Spirit of Jesus suffered [him] not." Messengers unknown 
to us carried the good news thither. At first the Chris- 
tians of this province were Hellenized Jews (1 Peter 1.1), 
but later Gentiles in large numbers accepted Christianity. 
About a. d. 112 Pliny, the governor of the province, wrote 
to the emperor Trajan to inquire concerning the proper 
judicial methods to pursue with those accused of being 
Christians. A part of his letter reads : 

It appears to be a matter highly deserving your considera- 
tion, more especially as great numbers must be involved in 
the danger of these persecutions, which already have extended 
and are still likely to extend to persons of all ranks and ages 
and even both sexes. In fact, this contagious superstition is 
not confined to the cities only but has spread its infection 
among the neighboring villages and country. Nevertheless, 
it still seems possible to restrain its progress. The temples, 
at least, which were once almost deserted, begin now to be 
frequented; and the sacred rites, after a long intermission, 
are again revived, while there is a very general demand for 
the victims which till lately found very few purchasers. 

The Basis of Complaint Against the Christians. — It is 

easy to see here the basis of the complaint against the 
Christians and the motive for their persecutions. Con- 
sider the antipathy sure to be aroused by any new mode 
of life which would cause temples to be deserted, priests 
to be deprived of revenues, stock raisers to be without 
a market, and farmers to have unsalable supplies of hay 
and grain. With such industries seriously affected wide- 
spread business depression certainly would follow. The 
pagan pocketbook had been touched by Christ. While 
Pliny reports that a vigorous policy of persecution had 
somewhat improved business conditions, he is well aware 
that the "contagious superstition" is spreading to all ranks 
and ages. Place yourself in the position of these aggrieved 
farmers, traders, and priests, and consider how bitterly 
they must have denounced these Christians, whose new, 
silly notions were ruining the country. Think too of the 
hardships endured by the persecuted followers of Jesus. 
They too were farmers and stock raisers and traders: but 

90 



ECONOMIC PEOBLEMS 

for them loss of income was not to be compared with the 
gain of knowing life in Jesus Christ. Consider the rich- 
ness and power of this new life which dared, sacrificed, and 
suffered to retain the glory that had shone into their com- 
mon day. 

Trades and Professions Repugnant to Christianity 

Idolatry. — It is well-nigh impossible for moderns to 
realize the manifold ramifications of idolatry in the early 
Christian centuries. Scarcely a trade or profession was 
there which in some way was not connected with pagan 
religion. Christianity, through its best teachers, strove 
to break with all forms of earning a livelihood and all social 
customs which kept their pagan religious implications. 
Whenever these stricter injunctions were followed, serious 
economic disturbances arose. Tertullian, who lived in the 
latter half of the second century, preserves several very 
interesting features of these economic problems faced by the 
triumphing spirit of Christianity. 

Christians Accused of Causing Business Depression. — 
"We are accused of being useless in the affairs of life," 
writes Tertullian. "How in all the world can that be the 
case with people who are living among you, eating the 
same food, wearing the same attire, having the same habits, 
under the same necessities of existence? . . . How it is 
we seem useless in your ordinary business, living with you 
and by you as we do, I am not able to understand. . . . 
I do not recline in public at the feet of Bacchus yet of your 
resources I partake wherever I may chance to eat. I do not 
buy a crown for my head. What matters it to you how I use 
them if the flowers are purchased ? I think it more agree- 
able to have them free and loose, waving all about. . . . 
We do not go to your spectacles; yet the articles sold 
there, if I need them, I will obtain more readily at their 
proper places. We certainly buy no frankincense. If the 
Arabians complain of this, let the Sabeans be well assured 
that their more precious and costly merchandise is ex- 
pended as largely in the burying of Christians as in the 
fumigating of the gods. You say the temple revenues are 

91 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

every day falling off. In truth, we are not able to give 
alms both to your human and heavenly mendicants; nor 
do we think that we are required to give any but to those 
who ask for it. Let Jupiter, then, hold out his hand and 
get, for our compassion spends more in the streets than 
yours does in the temples." 4 To what extent does this 
reply of Tertullian indicate a loss of revenue on the part 
of pagan business interests? Christians were charged 
with immorality, atheism, and want of patriotism, and fre- 
quently were put to death as guilty of such crimes against 
the state. In the light of the foregoing language of Ter- 
tullian how much of this persecution really rooted in the 
disturbed business of pagan merchants and tradesmen ? 

Occupations Closed to Christians : Idol Makers and Tem- 
ple Workers. — Tertullian is particularly severe against the 
artificer of idols. In his discussion of "Idolatry" it ap- 
pears that pagans who had become Christians, who had 
given up the worship of idols, still continued at their old 
trade of making idols. At the remonstrance of their 
brethren they say, "We have nothing else to live by." Ter- 
tullian retorts that such have no place in the kingdom of 
God. These idol makers quote the Pauline injunction (1 
Corinthians 7. 20) : "Let each man abide in that calling 
wherein he was called." Tertullian answers, "We may all 
continue in our sins according to that interpretation of 
the apostle." It was a bitter struggle to divorce Chris- 
tians from occupations connected with pagan religion. 
Tertullian condemns every form of work in connection with 
temples. Christians urge that such employments pay bet- 
ter wages ; Tertullian retorts that the less gainful employ- 
ments at least are more steady. The plasterer, painter, 
carpenter, and mason need not work on temples: houses 
offer a larger opportunity for labor. "Shoe- and slipper- 
gilding is daily work; not so the gilding of Mercury and 
Serapis." 

Other Employments Condemned. — Astrologers and ma- 
gicians can have no part in the kingdom of the heavens. 



4 Apologeticu8, Chapter XLII. 

. 92 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

School-teachers also can have no place in the church. It 
was necessary for them to teach the names, honors, and 
genealogies of the pagan deities, and to observe their fes- 
tivals. The first fees of every new pupil custom compelled 
him to consecrate to Minerva. The commandment not to 
kill excludes from the church the gladiator and the trainer 
of gladiators. Frankincense sellers, purveyors of public vic- 
tims for gladiatorial combats, and actors cannot be dis- 
ciples of the Christ. Christians may not hold public offices 
that compel their occupants to sacrifice. The oversight 
of temples, the conduct of spectacles either at private ex- 
pense or the public charge, the proclamation of an edict 
for any pagan festival, the taking of oaths, and the sitting 
in judgment in a criminal case are prohibited. 

Military Service. — This vocation was doubly obnoxious 
to the stricter Christians. It was connected with idolatry 
and was a violation of the commandment not to kill. For 
Tertullian the Eoman eagle was the standard of the devil, 
and the military camp was the camp of darkness. The 
Christian has no right to the sword. "The Lord in dis- 
arming Peter unbelted every soldier." Tertullian lays 
down the rule that no Christian may enlist. If a soldier 
becomes a Christian, there must be an immediate abandon- 
ment of the military service. 

The Relief of Economic Distress Within the 
Church 

The Common Fund. — Two distinct ways of relieving dis- 
tress, which are at least relatively new, are found among the 
Christians of the first and second centuries. We already 
have noted the existence of a common fund among the 
Jerusalem Christians. This practice was continued, at 
least as a common fund, to relieve the needs of those who 
had no other means of livelihood. Ignatius, bishop of 
Antioch, writing at about a. d. 100, to Polycarp, enjoins: 
"Let not the widows be overlooked : on account of our Lord, 
be their guardian. Despise not slaves; but neither let 
them desire to be set free out of the common fund/' Jus- 
tin Martyr, at about the middle of the second century, in 

93 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND BEFOBMERS 

his Apology addressed to the Emperor Hadrian, relates, 
"We who valued above all things the acquisition of wealth 
and possessions, now bring what we have into a common 
stock and communicate to everyone in need." 

The Common Fund a Charity Created by Special Gifts. 
— Justin here seems to indicate a community of goods. It 
is quite possible that the Jerusalem practice was repeated 
in isolated communities. But the prevailing idea of the 
common fund was a charity fund created by special gifts. 
Tertullian, in his Apology (Chapter XXXIX), makes this 
clear : 

We have our treasure chest, into which each, if he likes, 
on the monthly collection day, puts in a small donation; but 
only if it be his pleasure, and only if he be able. There is no 
compulsion: all is voluntary. These gifts are piety's deposit 
fund. For they are not taken thence and spent on feasts, 
drinking bouts, and eating houses, but to support and bury 
poor people., to supply the wants of boys and girls destitute 
of means and parents, and of old persons confined now to the 
house: such too as have suffered shipwreck. If there happen 
to be any in the mines, or banished to the islands, or shut up 
in the prisons for nothing but for their fidelity to the cause 
of God's church, they become the nurslings of their confession. 

The Emphasis Upon Simplicity of Life. — "Seek ye first 
the kingdom of God" was the outstanding injunction of 
early social Christianity. "What shall it profit a man to 
gain the world ?" was the pious query to soften the Chris- 
tian's experience of economic distress. Cyprian typically 
expresses the feeling of the early Christian leaders. He 
tells his fellow Christians that those whom they consider 
rich are torn by anxiety. They are afraid of being robbed 
and murdered. They are the envy of wealthier neighbors 
who subject them to suits at law. "In the midst of the 
banquet he sighs, although he drinks from a jeweled goblet; 
when his luxurious bed has enfolded his body, he lies 
wakeful in the midst of the down. Nor does he perceive, 
poor wretch, that these things are merely gilded torments, 
that he is held in bondage by his gold, and that he is the 
slave of his luxury and wealth rather than their master." 6 

• Epiatle to Donatus. 

94 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

Summaky: The Coming Kingdom 

The Material Subordinate to the Spiritual. — Paul's ex- 
perience with the trade guilds at Ephesus is the beginning 
of the long task of Christianity to bring the business activ- 
ities of mankind into harmony with the Spirit of Jesus 
Christ. Christianity, while recognizing the necessity of 
the material goods of life, emphasizes the life of the soul. 
The progress of Christianity, therefore, in one of its vital 
aspects is a process of reducing the production of material 
goods and commerce therein to a subordinate place in the 
thought and love of man. It is a tremendous task. It 
was the more difficult in the ancient world through the 
intimate connection of business with pagan religion. Yet 
Christian leaders did not shrink from this conflict. They 
faced bravely the economic disturbances their gospel in- 
volved. No more difficult obstacle, no more bitter antago- 
nism, has confronted Christianity than the group that says, 
"By this business we have our wealth." 

Willingness to Bear Economic Stress an Evidence of 
Christian Experience. — Modern Christian missions present 
many striking parallels to these ancient conflicts. Perse- 
cutions, disinheritance, ruined trade, lost business positions, 
and shrunken incomes are a commonplace of the modern 
triumph of Christianity in mission lands. Others than 
Paul have contended with wild beasts whose business was 
jeopardized by the gospel. There is no more telling wit- 
ness to the deep satisfaction of a genuine Christian experi- 
ence than this willingness to bear economic distress, that 
the soul may be rich and satisfied in fellowship with God. 

Oue Daily Bread 

Who Is at Fault? — Daily food is the necessity of every 
man. To procure it is a problem of millions of human 
beings ; the want of it is the fear of vast multitudes. Hun- 
ger is the ghost that walks in the troubled dreams of 
countless throngs in the midst of bountiful earth and seas 
and skies. Is there not enough food produced for all? 
Has God gotten himself a greater family than he can care 

95 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

for? What is the cause of the economic distress that 
destroys the happiness of individuals and the peace of 
nations ? 

Are We Doing God's Way? — Surely God must have 
planned a way to supply the needs of all his children. 
"Give us this day our daily bread" was not intended for 
the rich and the strong alone. Nature has milk enough 
for all her children, and when any son of earth is unfed, 
the will of God, by some person or persons, has not been 
done. What is the will of God concerning the material 
goods of life ? 

Beware of Loafers! — Does not God purpose that everyone 
shall labor? Idleness is more than the concern of a va- 
grancy officer. It is more than a subject for the sociolo- 
gist: it is a sin against God. Whoever is responsible for 
idleness— the individual who refuses to work or the com- 
munity that periodically throws men out of employment — 
sins against the moral order of the universe. Work is the 
sacred duty of all. Wealth in the sight of God excuses no 
man from toil. Laziness in prince and pauper alike 
stinks to heaven. The real Christian chooses an honorable 
vocation and regards it as a trust and a character-building 
opportunity. 

The Simple Life. — If God has his way with us, we shall 
learn to satisfy our lives with simple physical needs. It 
is the strife for luxuries which fills the world with dis- 
tress. Centuries have come and gone, and man still pursues 
his restless way to heap up outward goods. The past has 
not taught him its painful lesson. The race is still a child 
crying in the night, hungry but ignorant of where its need 
may be supplied. To become divine man must not only 
labor : he must organize his life also by quiet habits around 
simple needs. The simpler satisfactions are the ones that 
endure. Sober, honorable industry and rationally con- 
trolled desires are guaranties of unpassing peace and joy. 

Where Are We Heading? — It is God's will, too, that 
we shall understand the meaning and goal of our being. 
We think that it is our first duty to live. We therefore 
take up with employments which render spiritual culture 

96 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

impossible. We adopt questionable business methods. We 
grow unscrupulous and hard, become absorbed in com- 
mercial affairs, and see nothing but the golden prize 
for which we toil. For daily bread we sell our souls. We 
human beings curse and covet, lie and steal, blaspheme and 
murder, for bread. We barter soul for body. Is it our 
first duty to live ? Is man's nearest obligation to have food 
or to have fellowship with God ? Let men say, "We must 
be good whether we live or die; we must never part with 
purity and honor whether we win wealth or starve. It is 
better to die than to live in dishonor. An unmarked grave 
is a better inheritance than a palace wrung from the weak- 
nesses and sins of our fellow men." 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Why did the early converts to Christianity want to throw 
up their jobs? 

2. What did Paul teach with reference to the economic 
relationships of the community? 

3. How did Paul exemplify the working Christian? 

4. Tell what you know about the pagan trade guilds. 

5. Why did Paul's preaching at Ephesus "start something"? 

6. Show how in this respect new victories brought Chris- 
tianity new problems. 

7. What was Paul's method in presenting his message in 
Corinth? 

8. What occupations were closed to those joining the Chris- 
tian Church? Why? 

9. In what way did the endurance of economic hardship 
indicate genuine Kingdom loyalty? 

10. Explain the methods used by the church to relieve eco- 
nomic distress. 

11. How did Christianity seek to bring the production of 
material goods and commerce in them to a subordinate place? 

12. Are we meeting squarely every challenge that comes to 
us to make economic sacrifice for the sake of Christ? 

Beading Eeferences 

The Church in the Roman Empire, Ramsay, Chapters VIII 
and X. 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume I, pages 290-311. 

Persecution in the Early Church, Workman, pages 148-56, 
171-90. 

Pliny's Letters, Bosanquet, Book X, Letter XCVII. 

37 



CHAPTER VIII 

CHRISTIANITY IN ROME 

This chapter presents the story, so far as this is now 
known, of the Christian Church in Rome during the first 
century of our era. This is the most important community 
whose Christian beginnings we have yet studied. The de- 
velopment of the church, subsequent to the apostolic age, 
through which the church in Rome came to its headship of 
Western Christianity, makes the study of the beginnings of 
Christianity in the imperial city unusually important and 
interesting. 

The Origin of Christianity in Rome 

The Exact Origin of the Church at Rome Unknown. 

— The exact facts of the origin of the Roman church are 
unknown. The New Testament offers no positive testi- 
mony. The surmises are worthy of examination: (1) "So- 
journers from Rome" (Acts 2. 10) shared the experiences 
of Pentecost and, on returning home, must have spoken of 
these events in their synagogues and formed the nucleus — or 
at least the soil for later missionaries — of a Christian com- 
munity. Suetonius, a Latin historian, who wrote not later 
than twenty-five years after the close of the apostolic age, 
states that the emperor Claudius (a. d. 41-54) "banished 
from Rome all the Jews who were continually making dis- 
turbances at the instigation of Chrestus" (see also Acts 
18. 2). If Christianity was introduced into Rome by Jews, 
disturbances at the synagogues soon or late were sure to 
occur. (2) The other conjecture is that the Roman church 
was founded by Christians from Antioch, Ephesus, or 
Corinth. These ports were in constant communication 
with Rome, and among the incessant travelers between the 
East and the imperial city Christians at an early date were 
sure to carry their faith into Rome. Paul's letter to the 

98 



CHRISTIANITY IN ROME 

church at Rome, written after both his Corinthian and 
Ephesian pastorates, indicates a large number of Chris- 
tians in Rome with whom he was familiar (Romans 16. 3- 
16). One thing is clear: neither the New Testament nor 
any of the literature of the church Fathers of the first one 
hundred and fifty years states that any of the apostles was 
the founder of the church in Rome. 

Paul and the Church at Rome 

Paul's letter to the Church in Rome. — The starting 
point of our exact information concerning Christianity in 
Rome is Paul's letter to the Romans. This letter was writ- 
ten from Corinth quite probably in the early spring of 
a. d. 58. After examining Romans 1. 8; 15. 14, and con- 
sidering the high quality of this letter, form an opinion 
concerning the numbers, the intellectuality, and the piety 
of the Roman church. What can be said of Paul's feeling 
toward the Christians of Rome (1. 13-15; 15. 23) ? Con- 
sider to what extent the Judaizing opponents of Paul and 
the great opportunities at Corinth and Ephesus had 
thwarted his plans to visit Rome. Read 15. 23-29 and 
state what Paul's plans were at the time this letter was 
dispatched to Rome. 

Christianity's Progress in Rome up to A. D. 58. — This 
letter throws considerable light upon the progress of Chris- 
tianity in Rome up until the year a. d. 58. Examine 1. 5, 
6 (see marginal reading for "nations"), 13-15; 11. 13; 
and state whether this church was composed of Jewish or 
Gentile Christians. Observe in the working out of this 
problem (15. 15, 16) that Paul offers as the motive for 
the bold treatment of Roman Christianity undertaken by 
this letter, that he is the apostle to the Gentiles. Such sec- 
tions as 2. 17-24; 7. 1-6 appear to be addressed to Jews; 
and although Jewish proselytes converted to Christianity 
would fit these references, there is no reason to suppose 
that there were not Jewish as well as Gentile Christians in 
the Roman church. 

Paul's Reply to the Judaizers. — In addition to Paul's de- 
sire to minister to the Gentiles (15. 16) he seems also to 

99 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

be answering a Judaizing attack upon the Roman church. 
It would seem that they twisted Paul's teaching that right- 
eousness, being a divine gift, is not obtainable through 
legal works into the slander (3. 8) that conduct mattered 
little : "let us do evil, that good may come." Paul indig- 
nantly rejects the accusation that liberty from Jewish 
legalism leads to unrestrained conduct (6. 1 f., 15 f.). He 
was made to say also (3. 31; 7. 7) that the law, being inef- 
fectual to secure righteousness, really instigated to sin. 
Running through chapters 9 to 11 seems to be the answer 
of Paul to the accusation that he had forsaken his own 
people and nation : that as an apostate from his own reli- 
gion he was scarcely worthy to preach righteousness to 
others. 

The Division Over Food and Sacred Days. — The Roman 
church at this time also had its divisions of strong and 
weak. Examine attentively 14. 1 to 15. 7. Observe that 
there were two matters in question: the question of food 
and the question of sacred days. What was the position of 
the two parties on these questions ? Which was the stronger 
element? With which party did PauPs chief sympathies 
lie? What practical suggestions does he make? The 
"weak" probably were Jewish proselytes become Christians, 
and the "strong" were converts directly from paganism. 

Christianity's Triumphs at Rome. — Thus the church at 
Rome had its problems. But it had its triumphs, too. 
What can be said for the faith and character of Roman 
Christianity at this time (1. 8; 15. 14)? Consider too, 
in estimating the Roman church at the period of this 
letter, that, although no apostle had directed its develop- 
ment, Paul considered this Gentile church worthy of his 
best. For Romans is Paul's best. He discusses in the 
freest manner the deepest problems which the gospel awak- 
ened in the minds of men. 

Paul's Services of the Church at Eome. — Read 1. 10 and 
state Paul's purpose in going to Rome. Paul, of course, 
did not expect to go as a prisoner. Examine Acts 28. 16, 
20, 23, 30; Ephesians 6. 20; Colossians 4. 18; Philemon, 
verses 9, 10; Philippians 1. 13; 2. 25-30; 4. 10, 11, 18; 

100 



CHRISTIANITY IN EOME 

2 Timothy 4. 9-11., and consider the circumstances under 
which Paul lived in Rome in the light of an opportunity to 
fulfill his earlier expressed purpose. Like other Roman 
prisoners whose offense did not warrant a dungeon, Paul 
was bound by a chain to a soldier day and night. From 
the above references it appears that the Christians in Rome, 
at least during the early months of Paul's imprisonment 
(Philippians was written some time after Paul's arrival at 
Rome yet early enough in his imprisonment to warrant 
the hope of release), did not minister attentively to Paul's 
needs. Paul was sometimes in want; he had been relieved 
by gifts from Philippi; Epaphroditus had worked himself 
into a sickness to care for Paul. The Roman authorities 
provided only the coarsest food, garments, and lodging for 
their prisoners. Any comforts had to be provided by the 
friends of the prisoner. What does this situation argue as 
to the debt which the Roman church felt it owed to Paul ? 

The Prisoner-Evangelist. — Examine Philippians 1. 12- 
18. Note especially two advantages of the apostle's con- 
finement. There is a beautiful insight into Paul's life in 
1. 13. The soldiers of the Praetorian guard, the imperial 
troops quartered at Rome, were assigned by turn to be 
chained to the prisoners. One by one Paul was given an 
auditor who could not get away from him for five hours. 
With courteous tact Paul kept telling the story of his life 
and his Christ to these soldiers till at last he could write 
that he had preached Christ "throughout the whole Prae- 
torian guard." Such zeal was contagious. State the second 
good result of Paul's bonds (1. 14) . This renewed mission- 
preaching awakened new activity among the Judaizers — 
Jewish Christians whom we have met at Jerusalem, in 
Galatia, and at Corinth. 

TJn-Pauline Christianity at Rome. — Consider again the 
neglect of Paul by the Roman Christians in connection with 
the fact appearing in Philippians 1. 18 — that Paul was un- 
able to check the hypocritical preaching of Christ. Consider 
also the fact that Paul felt that in the deeper truths of 
Christianity there was little in common between himself and 
the Roman Christians (2. 20, 21). Does all this loneli- 

101 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOBMEES 

ness and alienation, this entering of the gospel, in his very 
presence, into paths remote from his own spirit, foretoken 
the development of an un-Pauline Christianity in Rome ? 

Paul's Life at Rome. — His earlier churches were not for- 
gotten. His letters, Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon, 
were dispatched shortly after his arrival in Eome. He 
prays for his distant churches (Ephesians 3. 14) ; he re- 
joices that they are stars shining in a dark world (Philip- 
pians 2. 15) ; he is pained at their sorrows (2. 28) ; he is 
concerned for Christians whom he never has seen (Colos- 
sians 2. 1) ; he is thoughtful to send many personal greet- 
ings (4. 10-17; Philemon 23, 24). At different times Paul 
had about him a number of friends. Timothy, his most 
trusted helper, was with Paul at the time these earlier letters 
were written (Colossians 1. 1; Philemon 1; Philippians 1. 
1). He was sent on a mission to Philippi (2. 23) but he was 
recalled to Eome shortly before the apostle's martyrdom 
(2 Timothy 4. 6-9). Whether he reached Eome before 
Paul's death is not known. Epaphroditus (Philippians 
2. 25-30; 4. 14-18) also was greatly prized by Paul. He 
carried with him back home Paul's letter to the Philippians. 
Tychicus, a faithful minister and greatly beloved by Paul, 
a resident of Ephesus (Acts 20. 4), was the bearer of the 
letters to the Ephesians (Philippians 6. 21-23; 2 Timothy 
4. 12) and the Colossians (Philippians 4. 7, 8) to their 
destination. Aristarchus seems also to have been a pris- 
oner at Eome (Colossians 4. 10). He was a citizen of 
Thessalonica (Acts 27. 2) and was with Paul at Ephesus 
(Acts 19. 29). Others were with him at times: Mark 
(Colossians 4. 10), with whom Paul once refused to labor 
(Acts 15. 37 f.) ; Justus (Colossians 4. 11) was a comfort 
to him; Epaphras of Colossae visited him (Colossians 1. 
7; 4. 12) ; Luke, the beloved physician, was with him for 
a time (Colossians 4. 14) ; Onesimus, the runaway slave, 
converted to Christ and now a "faithful and beloved 
brother" (Colossians 4. 9), is sent back to Philemon, the 
bearer of the beautiful letter which bears his master's 
name. Demas too is mentioned (Colossians 4. 14; Phile- 
mon 24) as a fellow worker, but the last reference to him 

102 



CHEISTIANITY IN EOME 

is far from praiseworthy (2 Timothy 4. 9). None of these 
to whom Paul looked for comfort and help were Koman 
Christians. 

Paul's Hope of Liberty. — At first Paul believed that his 
imprisonment would end in acquittal and liberty. He 
expects to visit his friend Philemon at Colossae (Philemon 
22) and to see his beloved Philippians again (Philippians 
1. 26; 2. 24). But his captivity dragged on, and Paul 
lost hope of his release. Examine 2 Timothy 4. 6-8 and 
state Paul's belief concerning the manner in which his 
imprisonment will end. Consult also 2 Timothy 4. 16-19 
and note that he has had a hearing in the imperial court. 
To what extent did this event encourage Paul to expect his 
acquittal? What help did he receive from the Eoman 
church ? 

The Death of Paul. — Here the curtain of exact New 
Testament history is drawn across the life of Paul, and 
we see him no more. The first subsequent reference to 
Paul in our extant literature is found in "The Epistle of 
Clement/' written to the church at Corinth nearly a genera- 
tion later, at about the same time that our canonical Bev- 
elation was produced. Clement writes: "After preaching 
both in the East and West, Paul gained the illustrious 
reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to 
the whole world and come to the extreme limit of the West, 
suffered martyrdom under the prefects." Clement does not 
state the date of Paul's martyrdom. Whether he was put 
to death as a disturber of the peace — a charge easily proved 
against him from the Eoman point of view — or whether he 
suffered as a Christian under the Neronian persecution 
is not known. Tertullian, writing near the close of the 
second century, exclaims, "How happy is its church 
[Eome] on which the apostles poured forth all their doc- 
trine with their blood; where Peter endures a passion like 
his Lord's; where Paul wins a crown in a death like 
John's!" [that is, the Baptist]. This tradition that Paul 
was beheaded is true to the manner in which the death 
penalty was inflicted by Eome upon its condemned 
citizens. 

103 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOBMEES 

Peter and the Eoman Church 
Some Historical Consideration. — The New-Testament 
evidence that Peter was at Eome is found in 1 Peter 5. 13. 
Mark was in Eome at about the time that Peter came 
thither (Colossians 4. 10; Philemon 24). The tradition 
that he was for twenty-five years bishop of Eome, almost 
"universally accepted by the Eoman Catholic Church for 
centuries, was first recorded by Jerome, who lived in the 
fourth century. The first historical reference to Peter is 
in "The Epistle of Clement," already quoted. He writes : 
"Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two 
but numerous labors and, when he had at length suffered 
martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due him." Cle- 
ment does not state the place of his death, but it was 
apparently well understood that the martyrdom occurred at 
Eome. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, writing, fifteen or 
twenty years later than Clement, to the church at Eome, 
says, "I do not, like Peter and Paul, issue orders to you." 
Here the connection of Peter with Eome is treated as a 
well-known fact. About three quarters of a century later 
Tertullian records that Peter was crucified at Eome. Some 
two generations later Origen writes that Peter was crucified 
head downward. The fact that this is not stated in the 
earlier literature renders Origen's account rather untrust- 
worthy. At the most Peter could have been in Eome but a 
very brief period before his death. 

Persecution of the Eoman Church 
The Burning of Rome. — In the summer of a. d. 64 a 
dreadful fire devastated Eome for nine days. The Eoman 
historians Tacitus and Suetonius both assert that the city 
was fired by Nero's orders. 

To remove the suspicion that he had ordered the city set 
on fire Nero, according to Tacitus, determined to transfer 
the guilt to others. "For this purpose," says Tacitus, "he 
punished with exquisite torture a race of men detested for 
their evil practices, by vulgar appellation commonly called 
Christians. . . ." x 

1 Annals , Tacitus, Book XV, Section 44. 

104 



CHRISTIANITY IN EOME 

The Roman Empire Becomes Hostile to Christianity. — 

The statement of Suetonius that Nero "inflicted punish- 
ments on the Christians, a sort of people who held a new 
and impious superstition," together with the foregoing ac- 
count from Tacitus, indicates that Christianity, at about 
the time of the death of Paul and Peter, entered upon a 
new stage of its career. Hitherto the Roman government 
had been tolerant of the new religion: in many cases in 
Paul's career the government's attitude was helpful to the 
spread of the faith. Prom this time on the empire becomes 
hostile to Christianity, and the church believes that Rome 
is the great enemy of the faith. 

The Second Generation of Roman Christians 

The Testimony of the Epistle to the Hebrews. — The only 
indication in this Epistle of its authorship or its destina- 
tion is found in chapter 13. 24. While this expression 
might mean that the letter was written somewhere in Italy 
and was sent to some church located elsewhere, it is much 
more natural that it was written to a church in Italy, and 
the general conclusion now is that Hebrews was written 
to the Christians in Rome. The book was written most 
probably between a. d. 70 and 96. If the Epistle was writ- 
ten to the church at Rome, we have additional light upon 
this church in the first or second decade after the death of 
Paul. We have, then, some hints as to the effect of Ne- 
ronian persecution upon Roman Christianity. This terrible 
scourging of the church has passed (10. 32), but its effects 
remain. Read 3. 12 to 4. 16 and observe the danger of 
apostasy, which the author feels threatens this church, and 
note too the comfort and the hope he feels must be ex- 
tended to them. See especially 3. 14; 4. 1, 3, 6, 9, 11. 
Read also 6. 4-8, wherein the author again reverts to this 
danger. They have passed through affliction (10. 32), and, 
stunned by its blow, the church has not moved forward with 
faith and confidence (5. 11-14). Read also 10. 23-25 and 
state additional instances of this lukewarmness. The author 
feels that his readers need to be earnestly exhorted to be 
steadfast and true to Christ under all affliction. Study 

105 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOEMEES 

2. 1; 3. 12, 13; 4. 11, 14, 16; 6. 11, 12; 12. 12, 13; 13. 
22 and note the anxiety of the writer that his readers 
shall rise to the fullest faith and zeal. They were not 
lax in noble service in the past (6. 10) nor were they 
crushed by persecution. On the contrary (10. 32-34), they 
had passed triumphantly through great evils. Observe the 
exhortations to measure up to persecution (12. 4) : even 
Christ was perfected through suffering (5. 8) ; the great 
heroes of the past endured every form of affliction (11. 1- 
40) ; chastening is God's way of dealing with his children 
whom he loves (12. 5-13). 

The Epistle to the Hebrews Fits Conditions in the Church 
at Rome. — Observe the way in which the author seeks to 
lead his readers to faith and activity. What is urged in 
Hebrews 13. 1-3? Note the emphasis upon simple wants 
(13. 5) and upon the finding of one's life strength in God 
(13. 6). What effect would the statement in 13. 14, if 
really believed, have upon their lives ? The persecution by 
Nero was in a. d. 64. Domitian, who reigned from 81 to 
96, introduced the first general persecution of the Chris- 
tians not only in Borne but in other portions of the empire. 
The book of Hebrews may have been written at the very 
beginning of these persecutions. 

The Epistle of Clement. — There is extant an interesting 
and important letter, written about a. d. 95 in the name of 
"The Church of God Which Sojourns at Eome" to "The 
Church of God Sojourning at Corinth," which throws con- 
siderable light on both these churches. It is written in the 
midst of the persecutions, perhaps during a lull, instigated 
by Domitian. There is no hint that the Eoman church has 
wavered under these tribulations. On the contrary, the 
Eoman church feels strong enough to take a rich interest 
in the churches everywhere. Already the church at Eome 
feels itself in a sort of headship of Christianity. The 
church at Jerusalem had perished or had withdrawn from 
the city before its destruction in a. d. 70. Jewish Chris- 
tianity had fallen into a secondary place. Eome, by its 
position, infused something of its imperialism into the 
Christians who dwelt within its walls. This letter to 

106 



CHRISTIANITY IN ROME 

Corinth begins with an apology that the Roman church 
had not earlier given its attention to the dissensions at 
Corinth and excuses the delay by the persecutions at Rome. 
The letter claims also that its admonitions are spoken by 
the authority of Christ, and to disobey the advices of the 
Roman church is to disobey God. It is stated also that the 
church at Rome is in prayer for the church throughout the 
world. Here are the first germs of the spirit of Roman 
supremacy; but it is to be noted that these beginnings 
of church imperialism are put forward not in the name 
of the bishop but of the entire church. The letter is ear- 
nest in its demand for practical morality, and there is a 
fineness of piety in demanding as the basis of morality an 
inner spirit that discerns and motives all : "Let us reflect 
how near he is, and that none of our thoughts or reason- 
ings are hid from him. He is a Searcher of the thoughts 
and the desires of the heart : his breath is in us, and when 
he pleases he will take it away." 2 The church is not lack- 
ing in noble sympathy and service : "We know many among 
ourselves who have given themselves up to bonds in order 
that they might ransom others/ Many, too, have surren- 
dered themselves to slavery, that with the price which they 
received for themselves they might provide food for 
others." 3 The church with such devotion had some right 
to speak authoritatively of Christ to others. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

Two Types of Christianity at Rome. — The history of the 
Roman church of the first Christian century has two cen- 
ters of supreme interest: (1) First, our attention centers 
in Paul, the great apostle to the Gentiles. The greatness 
of this sturdy evangelist and organizer of the church is 
enough to give value to every available fact to illumine his 
last years. (2) Then, too, all the evidence points that at 
Rome there was formed a Gentile Christian community 
which did not owe to Paul the characteristic essentials of 
its faith and practice. Philippians, Hebrews, and the 

2 First Epistle to the Corinthians, Chapter XXI, condensed. 

3 Ibid., Chapter LV. 

107 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

Epistle of Clement all bear witness that the leaders of the 
Eoman church did not follow in close fashion the teach- 
ing of Paul. From the earliest notice of the church Eoman 
Christians felt conscious of a kind of self-sufficiency, which 
foreshadowed the papacy of later ages. The mystical, fer- 
vent piety of Paul is wanting. Eeligion moves more in the 
sphere of practical duties and in loyalty to the constituted 
authorities. 

The Church at Rome a Significant Achievement. — The 
establishment of the church in Eome was the greatest tri- 
umph yet achieved by Christianity. The missionary oppor- 
tunities of this church were unsurpassed. Here was to take 
place the chief struggle with the imperial power for toler- 
ance and legal standing. Here, since Eome was filled with 
innumerable trade guilds, would the economic disturbances 
incident to acceptance of the new religion become most 
acute. Here too, after the destruction of Jerusalem, would 
the Christian churches more and more naturally turn for 
inspiration and example. 

Greek Emigrants Led the First Triumphs at Eome. — It 
is of interest that Christians in Eome during this period 
were a Greek-speaking people. Greek was a widely spoken 
language in Eome in the first and second centuries of our 
era. Juvenal, who hates these foreigners, exclaims, "It is 
that the city [Eome] is become Greek that I cannot toler- 
ate." These Greek immigrants were the successful trades- 
men of the day and the confidential business agents and 
teachers of the rich. Energetic, intelligent, and numerous, 
they would arouse the ire of Eomans of the type of Juvenal. 
Yet it was these self-reliant, skilled, active residents who 
led the church to its first triumphs in the eternal city. 

Sojourners at Eome 

Sojourners. — "The church of God which sojourns at 
Eome" are the opening words of Clement's letter. After 
fifty years of history, after being tested by two persecutions, 
after having drawn into itself wealth and culture, after 
having met triumphantly the imperial power, this church 
regards itself as resident only temporarily in Eome. It was 

108 



CHEISTIANITY IN HOME 

just this consciousness of not having its roots in time and 
place which gave the early church its power. 

Firsthand Experience With God. — These Eoman Chris- 
tians were self-reliant. This self-reliance did not always 
save them from faults but it made them aggressive and con- 
ferred leadership upon them. "To believe what is true for 
you in your private heart is true for all men — that is 
genius," writes Emerson. To look into one's own heart to 
hear the voice of God is the only way of advance for Christ's 
kingdom. We cannot feed our soul upon the religious ex- 
periences of other men. The creative epochs of morality 
and religion always spring from firsthand experiences of 
God. Many an individual and many a church would 
awaken into new thrilling and powerful life had they faith 
enough to let go past programs to seek fresh directions from 
God. 

Paul a Poor Denominationalist. — Even Paul felt the 
power and coming triumphs of this church, which seemed 
more than any other of the day independent of apostolic 
guidance. In whatever way Christ is proclaimed, in my 
way, or in another way, I am content as long as his gospel 
is triumphant — this was the position of Paul. Despite all 
his positive leadership Paul was not a good denominational- 
ist. He checked the factions at Corinth; he saw the unity 
beneath the factions at Eome. The great Christian always 
is of this type. Christianity is a life so rich, and its social 
program so all-embracing that manifold views of its mission 
and methods are sure to be held. Keep your love-doors 
open to other churches. 

The Larger Fellowship. — This Eoman church's self-reli- 
ance blossomed into a great fraternal concern for the uni- 
versal church. They could not have been unmoved by the 
great example of Paul. No church can narrow its interests 
to its own community and become great. It must have a 
social vision, an evangelistic zeal, a foreign-missionary pas- 
sion. Think deeply now and answer to your best self: 
"How far beyond myself and my family do my real interests 
pass ? Is there in me a real Christ passion to do something 
for others beyond the selfish circles of my own home?" 

109 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND REFORMERS 

Pray for real nobility of soul to live in terms of great fellow- 
ship, and, therefore, of great service. 

The Brick Throwers' Tribute. — These Christian so- 
journers in Rome became important enough to persecute. 
Is your life so actively good that it arouses opposition? 
Thank God, then, that your Christianity is alive. If you 
have a clear vision of the ought-to-be and seek to translate 
your ideal into the world's life, you will find the worshipers 
of the thing that is, wanting to stone you. It is not the 
confetti thrown at you but the bricks which are the world's 
great tribute. Enough bricks were thrown at Paul to build 
a monument tall enough to be seen across nineteen centu- 
ries. Nero and Domitian, chief brick throwers of the first 
century, furnished the foundations for the imperialistic, 
dreaming church that finally triumphed over the empire. 
In God's name do something so positive and aggressive in 
the good cause of Christ that somebody will want to see you 
crucified ! 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Describe the progress made by Christianity in Rome up 
to a. d. 58. 

2. What vexing questions did Paul seek to solve in his 
letter to the Roman church? 

3. Describe Paul's life in Rome. 

4. What services did Paul's life in Rome render the Chris- 
tians in this city? 

5. What was Peter's relationship, to the church at Rome? 

6. What testimony does the Epistle to the Hebrews bear 
to the conditions in the Roman church just after Nero's 
persecution? 

7. State some of the exhortations to endure which the author 
of this letter gives. 

8. What light does the Epistle of Clement throw on this 
period? 

9. In what way did the church at Rome begin to assert 
authority? 

10. Which do you consider the most important pastorate 
of Paul? Give reasons for your answer. 

11. What was the most important service rendered by Paul 
to the Christian Church? 

12. Why did the Christians at Rome neglect Paul? 

13. In what sense was the church at Rome the most direct 

110 



CHRISTIANITY IN ROME 

challenge of paganism which the new faith had yet pro- 
claimed? 

Illustkative Readings 

The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 324-439, 627-33. 
Paul and His Epistles, Hayes, pages 301-15. 
The Church in the Roman Empire, Ramsay, Chapter XI. 
The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 193-212. 
Article "Clement of Rome" in A Dictionary of the Apos- 
tolic Church, Hastings. 



Ill 



CHAPTEE IX 

THE CHUECHES OP ASIA MINOE 

Varied circumstances combined to plant in Asia Minor 
many strong Christian communities which in various ways 
possessed leading influence in the Christian Church of the 
first three centuries. The present chapter indicates the 
spread of Christianity in the provinces of Asia Minor dur- 
ing the first century and points out the leading character- 
istics of some of these churches and the chief factors in 
their development. 

The Provinces of Asia Minor 

Location and Political Divisions. — Asia Minor stretches 
from north to south between the Black Sea and the Medi- 
terranean, a distance of four hundred miles, and east and 
west seven hundred miles from the iEgean Sea to the Ar- 
menian plateau. In the first century the Eomans admin- 
istered this rich country in seven provinces. Tarsus, the 
birthplace of Paul, was in the province of Cilicia. Across 
the Taurus Mountains to the north lay Cappadocia. Oc- 
cupying nearly the center of the country was the great prov- 
ince of Galatia, a part of which was evangelized by Paul. 
Stretching along the Black Sea were Bithynia and Pontus, 
administered by one governor. Here Pliny, the friend of 
Trajan, was in charge during the opening years of the sec- 
ond century. The province of Asia included nearly the 
whole of the western end of the peninsula. Lysia and Pam- 
phylia lay to the south of Galatia and Asia, along the 
Mediterranean. 

The Spread of Christianity in the First Century 

Cappadocia. — Prom 1 Peter 1. 1 it appears that within the 
first generation of Christians the gospel already had many 

112 



THE CHUECHES OF ASIA MINOE 

adherents in this province. A great trade route from 
Ephesus to the Euphrates ran through the heart of Cappa- 
docia; and although the population was not large, by the 
end of the second century there were a number of towns 
important enough and sufficiently evangelized to become 
the seat of bishoprics. During the latter quarter of the 
second century Christians were numerous enough to call 
upon themselves a severe persecution. It seems to have 
been precipitated by the conversion of the wife of the 
Eoman provincial governor. Succeeding generations pro- 
duced many eminent, devoted Christian ministers, scholars, 
and martyrs. The most noted of the Cappadocian church 
were Basil, exarch of Caesarea, the capital of the province, 
his brother Gregory of Nyassa, and Basil's intimate friend 
Gregory Nazianzen. These "three great Cappadocians," 
as they are known in church history, were eminent leaders 
of the Kingdom in the pre-Constantine age. 

Bithynia. — What reference to this part of Asia Minor is 
given in the account of Paul's journeys (Acts 16. 7) ? 
What further information is given by 1 Peter 1.1? Be- 
call what is said in Chapter VII (in connection with 
Pliny) concerning the spread of Christianity along the 
shores of the Euxine Sea in the first century. The founda- 
tions of Christianity were well laid in this province. Con- 
stantine chose the European side of the Bosporus for his new 
capital for the express reason that Bithynia was so rich 
in Christians. For the same reason Nicaea was chosen 
as the seat for the great council of this name held in 
a. d. 325. 

Galatia. — The gospel was first proclaimed in this prov- 
ince by Paul and Barnabas. Name the cities in which 
churches arose under their ministry. Eecall the contro- 
versy that called forth Paul's letter to the Galatians. 1 
The Montanist movement of the second century, primarily 
a renascence of the prophetic spirit in the church, was 
widespread in Galatia, and its history evidences that Chris- 
tianity in this province early spread to the remote vil- 



« See Chapter V. 

113 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

lages. As in Bithynia, so here was fertile soil for the new 
religion. Christianity made its appeal at first to the 
humbler classes, but gradually it extended through slaves, 
children, and wives into families of wealth and position. 
The emperor Julian complained to the pagan high priest 
of Aneyra, the capital of the province, that even the fami- 
lies of pagan priests had embraced the new religion. 

Pamphylia and Lycia. — Little is known of the Christian- 
izing of these small provinces. Who first proclaimed the 
new religion in Pamphylia (Acts 14. 25) ? A dozen towns 
with episcopal residence were the centers of Christianity 
at the time of the council of Nicaaa. It is probable that 
evangelists from Perga, the capital of Pamphylia, were the 
propagandists of the new faith. 

The Province of Asia. — Much fuller information is to be 
had concerning the growth of the church in Asia. Euse- 
bius preserves an interesting fragment from a letter of 
Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, in a. d. 200. It is to Victor, 
bishop of Eome. "In Asia," writes Polycrates, "also great 
lights have fallen asleep which shall rise again on the day 
of the Lord's coming. Among these are Philip, one of the 
twelve apostles, who fell asleep in Hieropolis; John, who 
reclined upon the bosom of the Lord, fell asleep at Ephesus ; 
Polycarp in Smyrna, who was a bishop and martyr; and 
Thraseas, bishop and martyr from Eumenia, who fell asleep 
in Smyrna. Why need I mention the bishop and martyr 
Sagaris, who fell asleep in Laodicea, or the blessed Papir- 
ius, or Melito, the eunuch, who lived altogether in the 
Holy Spirit and who lies in Sardis, awaiting the episcopate 
from heaven ? Seven of my relatives were bishops, and I am 
the eighth. I could mention the bishops who were present 
[that is, at a conference held by Polycrates] whose 
names should I write them would constitute a great mul- 
titude." 2 Note the cities here mentioned by Polycrates, and 
from the enumeration of the bishops consider the wide- 
spread extension of Christianity at the end of the second 
century. That the church of Asia stood ready to meet 



2 Church History, Book V, Chapter XXV, condensed. 

114 



THE CHURCHES OF ASIA MINOR 

with bold front the growing imperialism of the Roman 
church indicates the rich consciousness of vigorous Chris- 
tianity possessed by the Asian churches of the period. 

The Church at Ephesus 

The City and the Christian Community. — Reread what 
is said about the city of Ephesus in Chapter VI. The city 
was the most influential of the province at this period. It 
was the commercial center, and from it there ran a great 
trade route through the heart of Asia Minor to the Eu- 
phrates valley. Read also the statements in Chapter VII 
concerning the beginnings of Christianity in Ephesus. 
State again the influences that terminated Paul's min- 
istry in the city. During the apostle's residence in Ephe- 
sus he undoubtedly directed mission tours into other cities. 
During this time churches were established in other cities 
(1 Corinthians 16. 19). It would seem that Epaphras had 
been sent by Paul to Colossse, Laodicea, and Hieropolis 
(Colossians 1. 7; 4. 13). Examine 1 Corinthians 16. 12, 
19 and name other missionary colaborers with Paul at 
Ephesus. Observe the statement by Paul in 1 Corinthians 
16. 9 and, comparing it with what was learned in Chapter 
VII about the trade guilds, consider the difficulties in the 
way of establishing a strong church in this commercial, 
political, religious city. Two men of this first generation of 
Ephesian Christians — Tychicus (Acts 20. 4; Ephesians 6. 
21; 2 Timothy 4. 12; Titus 3. 12) and Trophimus (Acts 
21. 29; 2 Timothy 4. 20; and quite probably 2 Corinthians 
8. 18, 19, 22) — have an enduring record of their faith and 
loyalty. 

The Tradition Concerning the Apostle John at Ephesus. 
— The tradition that the Apostle John, within a few years 
after the death of Paul, became a resident of Ephesus and 
guided the destinies of its church until the close of his long 
life near the end of the century is quite trustworthy. Ire- 
nseus, bishop of Lyons in the early half of the second cen- 
tury, in his youth was a pupil of Polycarp, bishop of 
Smyrna. Polycarp in turn had been a disciple of the 

115 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Apostle John. Of his teacher Irenaeus writes : "I am able 
to describe the very place in which the blessed Polycarp sat 
as he discoursed and the accounts which he gave of his 
intercourse with John and with the others who had seen 
the Lord." 3 In his book Against Heresies Irenaeus further 
states, "The church in Ephesus was founded by Paul, and 
John dwelt among them permanently till the times of 
Trajan." 

The Testimony of Revelation 2. 1-7. — What inference 
may be drawn from Revelation 1. 11 concerning the im- 
portance of the Ephesian church ? Consider what is meant 
by the angel of the church in Ephesus. Observe carefully 
the qualities of the Ephesian Christians for which they 
are praised. Their "works" were their witnessing for 
Christ, their evangelistic labors. They patiently endured 
the hardships which Christian profession involved in a 
pagan city. They did not take up with every whim of 
teaching presented by those claiming apostleship who vis- 
ited their city. Note the special praise bestowed in verse 
6. This heresy will be discussed in Chapter XII. What 
adverse criticism is passed upon Ephesian Christianity? 
The churches of Asia were sorely tried by the persecutions 
under Domitian (a. d. 81-96), and the Ephesian disciples 
may well have blanched under thejn. ? There is a glowing 
tribute to the Ephesian ShurcK ten or fifteen years later by 
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in Syria. Ignatius, one of the 
worthiest leaders of the early church, was being taken to 
Rome for martyrdom. On reaching Smyrna he wrote to 
the Ephesian church : "I am far inferior to you and require 
to be sanctified by your church of Ephesus, so renowned 
throughout the world." 4 Ignatius also knew that Ephesus 
was proof against heretical teachers i "I have heard of some 
who visited you, having false doctrines, whom you did not 
suffer to sow their tares among you." 5 Consider the bear- 
ing of such testimony upon both the ministry of the Apostle 
John and upon the character of Ephesian Christianity. 

3 Church History, Eusebiua, Book V, Volume XX. 
•Chapter VIII. 
'Chapter IX. 

116 



THE CHUECHES OF ASIA MINOR 

Other Prominent Churches of Asia 

Smyrna. — Study Eevelation 2. 9, 10. Note the persecu- 
tions through which this church has passed and will pass. 
However, the "ten days" indicate that the author believes 
the persecution will be brief. What form will the persecu- 
tion take? In what way does the author characterize the 
Jews who take part in the persecution ? What has been the 
effect of past persecutions upon the spiritual life of the 
church ? Some years later Ignatius writes to the Smyrnan 
church: "I have observed that you are perfected in an 
immovable faith as if you were nailed to the cross of our 
Lord Jesus Christ." 6 The steadfast faith of the church of 
Smyrna in the closing years of the first century is indeed 
its unfading crown. 

Pergamum. — The first temple for the worship of the 
Roman emperor to be built in Asia was erected here about 
b. c. 29 in the honor of Rome and Augustus. Trajan 
and Severus in due course also were honored by temples, in 
which they were worshiped. Thus, the imperial cult here 
was unusually prominent. There is no record extant of 
the introduction of Christianity into this city. Communi- 
cation was easy and frequent between the capital and the 
important commercial cities Smyrna and Ephesus, and 
this city too may have shared in the expanding missions 
whose foundation was laid by Paul in Ephesus. Study 
Revelation 2. 13-17. Since Pergamum was the capital of 
the province and the chief seat of the imperial worship it 
was the city of "Satan's throne." The persecution under 
Domitian resulted from the attempt to enforce this wor- 
ship of the emperor. Refusal to worship was an expression 
of treason. Death was the consequent penalty. Antipas 
is remembered as the first of many who endured martyr- 
dom rather than apostasy. Observe that the church here 
was peculiarly susceptible to heresy. 

Thyatira. — This church was located in a commercial city 
of some importance, which lay upon the chief highway 
from Pergamum into the heart of Asia Minor. Nothing is 

•Chapter I. 

117 



APOSTLES, FATHEBS, AND EEFOBMEBS 

now known of the introduction of Christianity into this 
city. Study Eevelation 2. 18-29. The church has been 
unusually steadfast under persecution. Note the unusual 
result of these afflictions upon this church. Jezebel most 
probably was an influential woman of the church who was 
leading her followers into lawless extravagances. This lib- 
ertinism previously had been rebuked by the author or by 
some other overseer of the church (2. 21), but the movement 
was still unchecked. Both the prophetess and her followers 
are threatened with dire punishment. Compare the situa- 
tion here with the conditions in Corinth reproved by Paul. 
The fornication condemned is that Christian association 
with paganism which involves recognition of heathen ritual 
and heathen deities. Thyatira, being a center of the wool 
trade, the manufacture of woolen goods, and dyed fabrics 
(Acts 16. 14), was rich in trade guilds. Extant inscrip- 
tions speak of the guilds of dyers, cloak makers, potters, 
workers in brass, and many others. Few cities in the East 
were so thoroughly "unionized." All these guilds were 
connected with religion. Their social banquets involved 
religious ceremonies. It was well-nigh impossible in a com- 
mercial city for artisans to win a livelihood apart from these 
guilds. Consequently, under the economic pressure it was 
quite natural that a prophetess of the church should con- 
sent to Christians keeping their membership in the guilds 
and participating in the heathen rites such membership in- 
volved. This advice would be given in the spirit that to 
a Christian "no idol is anything in the world, and that 
there is no God but one" (1 Corinthians 8. 4). Bead again 
1 Corinthians 8. 1-13. 

Sardis. — This city was once the capital of the kingdom 
of Lydia. Croesus, whose name has become a synonym of 
wealth, had his residence here. Study Eevelation 3. 1-6. 
What sort of "works" are attributed to this church? In 
what state does the church now appear? What hope of 
better conditions does the author hold? Was the gospel 
preached here less pure? Or were the persons who em- 
braced it of lesser moral and mental virility than the Chris- 
tians of other cities? What praise is bestowed upon this 

118 



THE CHUECHES OP ASIA MINOE 

church? Notwithstanding the unfavorable view of the 
church expressed here its history continued for twelve cen- 
turies. In the reign of Marcus Aurelius its bishop was 
Melita, a scholar and a saint, who enjoyed distinction 
throughout the Christian world. 

Philadelphia. — The town stood in the midst of a fertile 
territory largely given to the production of wine. Its hot 
springs, its festivals, and its temples were sufficiently noted 
to attach the name "little Athens" to the city. Bead Eeve- 
lation 3. 9-13. The open door may mean either the rich 
spiritual life of the kingdom of God on earth and in heaven 
or the opportunity, because of its location at the head of a 
valley leading upward into the great central plateau of 
Asia Minor, to introduce Christianity throughout Phrygia. 
What are the "works" for which this church is praised? 
What assurance is given this church in regard to Jewish 
antagonism? to Eoman persecution? Ignatius reflects 
the Judaizing influences to which the church was exposed : 
"If anyone preach the Jewish law unto you, listen not to 
him." 7 But there Christians have weathered the storms of 
the closing century, according to Ignatius: "I have found 
no division among you but exceeding purity." 8 This city 
was the last in Asia Minor to succumb to the Turks. 

Laodicea. — At Laodicea four great highways crossed, and 
the consequent trade made it a chief banking center of Asia 
Minor. As at Pergamum, so here was an important center 
of the worship of Asclepius, the god of healing. Phrygian 
powder, a preparation for weak eyes, was prepared here. 
Christianity seems to have been introduced into Laodicea 
by Epaphras under the direction of Paul (Colossians 1. 7; 
4. 12, 13). Compare also Colossians 2. 1, which indicates 
Paul's interest in this church. Paul wrote a letter to the 
Laodiceans (Colossians 4. 16), but this epistle has been 
lost. Bead Eevelation 3. 14-22. What is the criticism 
passed upon this church ? Observe the manner in which the 
author uses the city's reputation in banking and medicine 
to express his estimate of the spiritual life of the church. 

7 Letter to the Philadelphians, Chapter VI. 

8 Ibid., Chapter III. 

119 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

What is the author's expectation concerning the future of 
this church? Christianity in this city survived the apos- 
tolic age. Sagaris, bishop of Laodicea, died a martyr 
about a. d. 166. The church was represented by its bishop 
in the council of Nicaea, 325. Church councils were held 
in the city in 363 and 486. It was the council of 363 which 
determined the New Testament canon for the Eastern 
churches. 

Colossae. — As in Laodicea, so here the gospel seems to 
have been first proclaimed in the city by Epaphras, a dis- 
ciple of Paul (Colossians 1. 6, 7; 4. 12, 13). This was at 
the time of PauFs residence in Ephesus. Paul's letter to 
the Colossians names some of the leaders of this church in 
its first years (4. 9, 12, 15, 17). What peculiar belief and 
practice did Paul warn the Colossians to avoid? (2. 18). 
The worship of angels was a long-continued practice of the 
Phrygian churches. The Council of Laodicea, about a. d. 
363, declared that those guilty of this idolatry must be 
anathematized. 

Hierapolis. — This city lay six miles north of Laodicea. 
Its famous hot springs made it a center of the worship 
of Asclepius. It was the seat of the worship of Leta, a 
variety of the widely spread worship of the mother-goddess 
Cybele. Divine honors were paid her in religious festivals 
composed of orgiastic rites. Epictetus, the famous slave- 
philosopher, was a native of Hierapolis. Epaphras seems 
also to have first proclaimed the gospel in this city (Colos- 
sians 4. 12, 13). There is a strong tradition that the 
Apostle Philip resided in this city during the last years of 
his life. The injunctions of Paul in Colossians 3. 5; 
Ephesians 4. 17-19; 5. 3-5 are particularly appropriate for 
Christians dwelling in a city devoted to the worship of 
Cybele. Papias, bishop of Hierapolis during the first half 
of the second century, had heard the Apostle John and had 
known intimately many who were well acquainted with the 
apostles. 

Magnesia and Tralles. — These cities, lying in the Maean- 
der valley not far from Ephesus, although not mentioned in 
the New Testament, had churches established in them in the 

120 



THE CHUKCHES OF ASIA MINOR 

apostolic age. The church at Magnesia sent its bishop, 
Damas, and its presbyters, Bassus and Apollonius, to call 
upon Ignatius at Smyrna when on his way to Rome. Igna- 
tius sent back with them a letter to the Magnesian church. 
From this letter it seems that a considerable Jewish element 
was in this church : "If we still live according to the Jew- 
ish law, we acknowledge that we have not received grace." 9 
Jewish Christians, according to their custom in other 
cities, were seeking to bind Christians to the observance of 
the law. "It is absurd," Ignatius writes to the church, "to 
profess Jesus Christ and to Judaize." 10 Polybius, bishop 
of Tralles, also visited Ignatius in Smyrna, and with him 
a letter was sent to the Trallian Christians. Their bishop 
gave them an excellent report: "I know that you possess 
an unblamable and sincere mind. You appear to me to 
live not after the manner of men but according to Jesus 
Christ." 11 

Persecutions 

The book of Revelation presents these Asian churches 
under the shadow of great persecution. The seven churches 
already have been subjected to attempts to check the spread 
of Christianity, and darker days already are seen to be in 
store. This is the meaning of the repeated warnings, 
injunctions to be faithful and promised rewards for those 
who bravely meet the threatening storms. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

The Churches of Asia Minor Contributed to the World's 
Civilization. — Asia Minor was a rich, flourishing, populous 
country in the first century of our era. Here Christianity 
early took root in all the cities and spread in the mari- 
time provinces to the remoter villages. We hardly realize 
now the contribution of these churches to the world's civil- 
ization. Our Christian life seems to spring more directly 
from the churches of the West. But the East early poured 

9 Epistle to the Magnesians, Chapter VIII. 

10 Ibid., Chapter X. 

» Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians, Chapter I. 

121 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

its devoted missionaries, theologians, and martyrs into the 
churches' life and made an important contribution to the 
development of piety, doctrine, and ecclesiastical organiza- 
tion. 

The Social Value of Unselfish Interest, Spiritual Cer- 
tainty, and Moral Vigor. — Christianity appeared in these 
Hellenized cities of Asia Minor as a new social force, quite 
different from anything that had preceded. The con- 
quests of Alexander had produced a social revolution of the 
political, commercial, and religious interests of the coun- 
try. The Eoman occupation had opened up new and im- 
pressive political vistas, introduced ordered government, 
and opened highways of trade. But both Greek and Eoman 
had come to exploit the native population to the advantage 
of the foreigner. The Christian missionaries were a new race 
socially. They came in the interests of the people. It was 
the unselfish interest of the Christian propagandist, the 
spiritual certainty of his religion, the moral vigor of his life, 
which appealed to these provincial cities. It was a vastly 
significant Kingdom movement when these rich commer- 
cial cities of Asia, with their deeply intrenched pagan reli- 
gions, were invaded by the gospel of Christ. No march of 
Alexander's veterans or of the imperial legions could com- 
pare in social value with the pastorate of a Paul or the 
bishopric of a John. 

To the Angel of Any Church 

Every Church Has Its Angel. — There is always a little 
group in every church who make the sacrifices, bear the 
burdens, carry upon their hearts the spiritual problems, 
pour out the prayers, have the social vision, know the 
Christ, and are impelled by the evangelistic passion. These 
are the angels of your church. It is this company, the heart 
and soul of the church, which gives the church its quality 
and its power. It is this inner circle which lives in fellow- 
ship with God and which is the channel of divine life into a 
spiritually indifferent world. 

Anonymous Workers. — Few builders of those churches 
of Asia Minor are known to us. Some of the world's best 

122 



THE CHURCHES OF ASIA MINOR 

work is anonymous. Who was the author of this saying or 
that? Who wrote the admonitions which we quote? 
Whose hands dragged into position the great stones 
of the pyramids? Whose chisel created the "Winged Vic- 
tory" of Samothrace ? What soldiers fell at Marston Moor 
and suffered at Valley Forge ? Truly creative work is done 
when fame is forgotten, and the cause is all. 

Conflict and Triumph. — Do not think that your church 
can triumph apart from conflict. If your church meets 
with no antagonism from the organized evil of your com- 
munity, it is because you are fighting no battles for social 
justice, civic purity, and communal righteousness. The 
kingdom of God is not flashed into the world like a June 
morning; it comes through unceasing antagonism of all 
that is petty and mean in human affairs. Is your church 
small-minded enough to be cursed by factions? Covetous- 
ness, envy, and jealousy are the marks of feeble minds. 
Be strong-minded; strengthen your souls in combat with 
evil; take up a heroic attitude to life. 

What Saith the Spirit? — The angel of any church must 
hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. God has not 
lost his voice; he still speaks to those who will hear him. 
A living faith is a faith fed by continual communica- 
tions within the soul. The vital source of social vision and 
activity is a new revelation of God within the soul of lis- 
tening men. Learn to recognize the voice of God. Choose 
goodness, follow truth, practice justice. Keep your heart 
tender toward misfortune and you w T ill meet with God. 
He is also working at these things. Expect to meet him in 
these common paths of duty, service, and love, and you 
will marvel presently at the intimacy of your fellowship 
with God. Begin to meet him to-day ! 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What are the geographical relationships of Cappadocia 
and Pamphylia? Bithynia and Ephesus? Lycia and Smyrna? 
Sardis and Pergamum? Philadelphia and Thyatira? Lao- 
dicea and Hierapolis? Colossae and Magnesia and Tralles? 

2. Under what governmental divisions was Asia Minor 
ruled by the Romans? 

123 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

3. In which province were the seven churches addressed 
in Revelation? 

4. Locate the cities in which Paul preached; John; Philip; 
Peter. 

5. In what way did the emperor worship of Asia Minor 
handicap the progress of Christianity? 

6. Why was it difficult to establish Christian churches in 
centers where Asclepius and Leta were worshiped? 

7. What social and political barriers were naturally raised 
by pagan society against Christianity? 

8. State the most difficult conditions over which Chris- 
tianity was obliged to triumph. 

9. What new permanent values did Christianity bring to 
pagan society? 

10. In what way did persecution affect Christianity? 

11. Discuss the social value of unselfish interest, spiritual 
certainty, and moral vigor. 

12. To what extent was the life of a city like Ephesus 
changed by the Christian church established there? 

Beading References 

The Letters to the Seven Churches, Ramsay, Chapters XIV- 
XXX. 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume II, pages 180-229. 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 122-61. 



124 



CHAPTER X 

CHRISTIAN LITERATURE IN THE APOSTOLIC 

AGE 

The development of a Christian literature was neces- 
sitated by two facts : Those who had seen Jesus and were 
firsthand witnesses of the beginnings of Christianity grad- 
ually passed away. These men and women were the pri- 
mary authorities not only for the earthly ministry of Jesus 
but also for the contents of the early gospel message. With 
their death, written documents were needed to preserve the 
substance of their preaching. Then, as with Paul and, no 
doubt, with many of the Twelve, the places in which the 
gospel was proclaimed became so numerous that the apostle 
needed to supplement his spoken words with the written 
message. 

The Letters of Paul 

Written Direction and Counsel Becomes Necessary. — 

Christianity began without written records. The "Scrip- 
tures" for Jesus and for the apostles were the Old Testa- 
ment. Behind the whole of our New Testament lies an age 
when Christian leaders were not thinking of writing books 
about Christ; their sole concern was to herald far and wide 
the new life of the kingdom of God, which the life and 
death of Jesus had made possible. It was the Messiah, 
the Messianic kingdom, and the Messianic salvation which 
were on the lips of the first heralds of the gospel. During 
this active period of envangelization no need was felt for a 
written gospel or for any written directions or counsels for 
the churches. 

Paul's First Letter: 1 Thessalonians. — This letter has a 
unique place in the world's literature. It stands at the 
beginning of the vast multitude of writings which Chris- 
tianity has called into being. It is PauPs first letter and 

125 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

it is the beginning of the world's Christian literature. It 
is impossible now to date with certainty the events of Paul's 
life. Between his visit to Thessalonica and his martyr- 
dom in Rome were eleven or twelve years, during which 
all his letters were written. These years of travel and im- 
prisonment must be placed between a. d. 47 and 64. Acts 
17. 1-15 gives an account of Paul's visit to Thessalonica 
and subsequent incidents until his arrival in Athens. From 
1 Thessalonians 3. 1 note what induced Paul to send Timo- 
thy back to Thessalonica. Upon Timothy's return to Paul, 
who in the meanwhile had gone to Corinth, the first letter 
was written. It is important to realize the manner in 
which the literature of the New Testament came into exist- 
ence. This letter to the church at Thessalonica is typical 
of the manner of the origin of all of Paul's Epistles. Read 
1 Thessalonians carefully and determine as nearly as pos- 
sible what conditions at Thessalonica made this written 
communication seem necessary to Paul. Examine 1. 2-5; 
3. 1-13 and consider whether or not Paul is trying to 
encourage the Thessalonians by revealing his own deep 
interest in all their trials. To what extent would his com- 
mendation of their faith and missionary activity (1. 6-10) 
tend to strengthen their Christian character? Consider 
whether or not this general purpose to encourage this 
church struggling with so many difficulties would be for- 
warded by Paul's statement (2. 13-16) that persecution 
is the common lot of all Christians. In addition to this 
attempt to encourage his converts Paul defends himself 
from Judaizers (2. 1-12). A third object of this letter 
appears in 4. 1-12; 5. 12-28, wherein the newly won con- 
verts from paganism are again instructed in Christian 
morality. Perhaps the chief object of this letter is to be 
found in 4. 13 to 5. 11. State what had become an object 
of concern among the Christian community at Thessa- 
lonica and the manner in which Paul seeks to set their 
fears at rest. Note the special injunction in 5. 27. The 
need of the church that called forth 1 Thessalonians — 
namely, the need of additional counsel on the part of a 
Christian community in its first faith and first encounter 

126 



CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 

with its pagan environment — typically illustrates the origin 
of our New-Testament literature. Second Thessalonians, 
written not many months after 1 Thessalonians, also was 
written at Corinth. Its main object may be learned from 

2. 1-12. Paul's teaching concerning the second advent 
of the Messiah had been misunderstood and was working 
harm in the church. This letter was written primarily 
to correct the evil influences of this misunderstanding. 

The Letter to the Galatians. — Most probably Galatians 
was the next of Paul's letters to be written and seems also 
to have been dispatched from Corinth. The readers of 
this letter undoubtedly were the churches established by 
Paul and Silas during their first missionary tour through 
southern Galatia. Earlier chapters of this book have 
shown that Paul was dogged by Jewish Christians, who 
insisted that all Christians must keep the Jewish law. 
These Judaizers had come among the Galatians (1. 6; 

3. 1; 4. 21; 5. 7) and were inducing them to become cir- 
cumcised and subject to Jewish law. This letter sprang 
out of the deep love of Paul for these Gentile churches and 
his concern, intensified into agony, lest the Judaizers should 
undo his labors in Galatia. 

1 and 2 Corinthians. — These come next of the extant 
Pauline letters. Four letters appear to have been written 
by Paul to the church at Corinth. The first of these is 
referred to in 1 Corinthians 5. 9. It is believed by many 
that 2 Corinthians 6. 14 to 7. 1 is a fragment of this lost 
letter. Our present 1 Corinthians is Paul's second letter to 
the church where he labored so many months. Tidings of 
certain disorders came to Paul at Ephesus (1 Corinthians 
1. 11) and certain questions had been put to Paul by the 
Corinthian church (1 Corinthians 7. 1). In this letter 
Paul answers these questions and seeks to correct the dis- 
orders. Affairs became worse rather than better. Paul 
made a brief visit to Corinth but was able to accomplish 
little in disciplining the church. Judaizers in the mean- 
time, arriving at Corinth, made matters worse (2 Corin- 
thians 3. 1). In the midst of discouragement and affliction 
he sent a third letter to the Corinthians (2 Corinthians 

127 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

2. 4; 7. 8). There is much reason to believe that this third 
letter is chapters 10 to 18 of 2 Corinthians. This third 
letter seems to have restored order in the Corinthian 
church (2 Corinthians 7. 8-16). Later, driven out of 
Ephesus by the riot, Paul journeyed by way of Troas and 
Macedonia toward Corinth. Somewhere on the way he was 
met by Titus (2 Corinthians 2. 13; 7. 13), who informed 
him of the changed conditions at Corinth. Comforted and 
rejoicing, Paul wrote his fourth letter to Corinth. This 
final letter is our 2 Corinthians, with the possible excep- 
tions noted above. 

The Letter to the Romans. — Read again what is said in 
Chapter VIII under the caption "The Letter to the Roman 
Church." State where this letter was written. What pur- 
pose moved Paul to write to the Christians of Rome ? See 
Romans 1. 11; 15. 15, 16. What were some of the prob- 
lems of the Roman church which Paul endeavored to solve ? 

Letters Written From Rome. — Philemon, Colossians, and 
Ephesians were written not many months after Paul's ar- 
rival in Rome. Onesimus, a runaway slave from Colossae, 
had been won to Christianity in Rome and was being sent 
back by Paul to his master Philemon. Paul writes Phile- 
mon to receive his Christian slave as a brother. This short 
letter is one of the most delightful missives that Chris- 
tianity ever has produced. Tychicus, also of Asia, makes 
the journey home with Onesimus. Paul sends with them a 
letter to the church of Colossae. Prom Colossians 2. 8-23 
it seems that the chief reason for this Epistle was the 
appearance within the Colossian church of some new teach- 
ing and beliefs that threatened the accepted faith in Christ. 
It appears that this new doctrine claimed the dignity of a 
"philosophy" (Colossians 2. 8) ; that it had distinct Jewish 
elements (2. 16; 3. 11); that it involved the worship of 
angels (2. 18) ; and that it urged a false asceticism (2. 20- 
23). After condemning such teachings Paul emphasizes 
the conduct becoming the Christian. Ephesians was not 
called forth by any special or urgent need of the churches. 
It was a general treatise upon the unity of the church — 
great enough for Jew and Gentile — and a faithful urging 

128 



CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 

of loyalty on the part of Gentile Christians lest they fall 
back again into their former pagan life. Philippians also 
was written by Paul at Rome. The church at Philippi 
was unusually dear to Paul. It was the first church to be 
founded in answer to the vision that had summoned him 
into Macedonia. It was not a wealthy church but it had 
given freely to the Jerusalem poor fund (2 Corinthians 
8. 2, 3). With this church only had Paul broken his rule 
of self-support. Twice had they sent funds to him at 
Thessalonica (Philippians 4. 16) ; they ministered to him 
also in Corinth (2 Corinthians 11. 9) ; and, finally, when 
in Rome and in want, the brethren of Philippi sent 
Epaphroditus (Philippians 4. 10, 18) to relieve the need of 
their dear friend and minister. It was this beautiful, 
thoughtful generosity in his time of need which led Paul 
to send this love letter to this favorite church. 

1 Peter 

A Letter of Comfort, Encouragement, and Warning. — 

Examine 1 Peter 1. 1 for the destination of this Epistle. 
Read 1 Peter 1. 6, 7; 3. 14, 16, 17; 4. 1, 12, 19; 5. 9, 10 
and note that Christians rather generally are feeling the 
weight of Roman official antagonism. In addition to this 
evident purpose to comfort and strengthen the afflicted 
Christians the Epistle warns the churches against a possi- 
ble relapse into paganism and reminds them (4. 7) that 
the advent of Christ is near at hand. This letter probably 
was written from Rome by Peter at the very end of his 
life. 

The Synoptic Gospels 

The Needs of the Gentile Church Brought Christian Lit- 
erature Into Existence. — The foregoing studies indicate 
that it was the needs of the Gentile churches which brought 
the first Christian literature into existence. But the Jew- 
ish Christian communities also had their problems and 
wants, and these too were met by the production of Chris- 
tian writings. Reread what is said in Chapter I under 
the caption "The Task of the Disciples." Examine also the 

129 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

reference in Peter's sermon (Acts 2. 22) to the earthly life 
of Jesus. As this gospel spread in new Jewish communi- 
ties, as a second generation of believers were brought into 
the church, and the apostles themselves were scattered, 
grown old, or deceased, the need was felt for a permanent 
record of the chief sayings and deeds of Jesus. There was 
more than one effort to supply this need (Luke 1.1). 

The Earliest Written Gospel. — Among the most careful 
students of Matthew, Mark, and Luke the agreement is 
general that the most important source for the authors 
of Matthew and Luke was the Gospel According to 
St. Mark. 1 It is almost universally recognized that 
there was a second source common to Luke and Mat- 
thew. This earlier source is known as the Logia of Saint 
Matthew. It is designated also by the letter "Q." This 
is the earliest written Gospel now in existence. However, 
this book, which was a collection of the sayings of Jesus 
and undoubtedly written by the Apostle Matthew, no 
longer exists independently. What remains of it is incor- 
porated in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. This Gospel, 
which emphasizes Jesus as a great Teacher and Prophet, 
was written in Aramaic and was known among Jewish 
Christians at least as early as the last years of Paul. 

The Gospel According to Mark. — Examine the prologue 
of the Gospel According to St. Luke. Observe in verse 
three that the author of this Gospel commends his own work 
in two particulars — namely: he narrates the life of Jesus 
from its beginnings and he arranges his material in chrono- 
logical order. Consider whether or not Luke's reference 
to the numerous Gospel writers who preceded him included 
Mark. Reexamine what is said under the preceding topic 
concerning Luke's use of Mark. The next reference to 
Mark in extant Christian literature is a statement of 
Papias, bishop of Hieropolis, who held many conversations 
with persons who had known intimately the twelve apostles : 
"Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote 
down accurately, though not indeed in order, whatsoever 

1 See Luke, the Physician, Ramsay, page 73 ; A Dictionary of the Gospels, Hastings, 
Volume II, page 85; The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, page 574; etc. 

130 



CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 

of the things said or done by Christ. . . * He was careful 
of one thing: not to omit any of the things which he had 
heard and not to state them falsely." 2 It is probable that 
this Gospel was written at Rome and was intended pri- 
marily for Gentile readers. It seems certain that Mark was 
unacquainted with the early Gospel described above. The 
Gospel of Mark certainly was in circulation before the de- 
struction of Jerusalem in a. d. 70. 

The Gospel According to Matthew. — Reread what is said 
above concerning the earliest Gospel and the Gospel of 
Mark. Seven eighths of Matthew are drawn from the 
Logia and Mark. The aim of this Gospel is to show that 
Jesus from his birth to his ascension fulfills the Old-Testa- 
ment conditions of Israel's Messiah. Note especially this 
Gospel's method of emphasizing events in the life of Jesus 
by seeing in them fulfilled predictions of Old-Testament 
prophets (1. 23; 2. 5, 15; etc.). This Gospel evidently was 
written by a Jewish Christian to further the need of 
early Jewish Christianity, expressed, as we have seen, 
in Peter's sermon at Pentecost. The name of Mat- 
thew became attached to this Gospel, no doubt, from the 
fact that it used the Logia (or the earliest Gospel, described 
above which was written by Matthew), and used it in a way 
that made this material prominent. 

This Gospel was written not long after the destruction of 
Jerusalem. Examine 24. 3-5 and observe that the author 
conceives that the destruction of Jerusalem and "the end 
of the world" are closely related events. Note also that 
24. 6-28 deals with the destruction of Jerusalem. Then, 
24. 29, which begins the description of the "end of the 
world," dates this second event in close sequence with the 
destruction of the city. It was difficult for a Jewish Chris- 
tian to conceive of an enduring social order apart from the 
existence of his nation and his Holy City. This Gospel 
thus reflects the hopes and beliefs of Jewish Christianity 
after the destruction of Jerusalem had broken down the 
more liberal elements of the Jewish Christian world. 



2 Church History, Eusebius, Book III, Chapter XXXIX. 

131 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

The Gospel According to Luke. — The Logia of Matthew 
and the Gospel of Mark are the principal sources for more 
than three fourths of Luke. Two general purposes moved 
Luke in the composition of his Gospel: (1) One is stated 
in the prologue — namely : he desired to place the materials 
already at hand for a life of Jesus in chronological order. 
He does not use his material taken from the Logia, as did 
the author of Matthew, largely in bulk, but he breaks it up 
and seeks to place the sayings of Jesus in appropriate his- 
torical settings. (2) The other motive was to make his 
historical narrative a universal Gospel. This purpose was 
not so apparent in Mark, and Matthew was written pri- 
marily for Jewish Christians. Luke writes especially for 
the Gentile world. For this reason he stresses the teaching 
that the kingdom of God is open to all. Examine 2. 32; 
3. 6; 4. 26, 27; 7. 9; 13. 29 and similar passages that indi- 
cate the range of his Gentile sympathies. Consider too 
that the teaching and incidents in 7. 36-50; 10. 30-37; 
15. 11-32; 17. 11-19; 18. 1-8; 23. 39-43, not found in the 
other Gospels, reveal Luke's sympathy with all classes and 
his special interest in words and deeds of Jesus in connec- 
tion with the poor, the friendless, the outcast, women, and 
non-Jewish peoples. 

Luke was written still later than Matthew. Observe 
the manner in which he treats the topics of the destruction 
of Jerusalem and the end of the world. Luke 21. 20-24, 
which describes the destruction of the city, is clearly differ- 
entiated from 20. 25-36, which discusses the second advent 
of the Messiah. The coming of the Messiah is not made 
coincident with or closely related to the destruction of 
Jerusalem and the fall of the Jewish nation. This time 
indication alone is sufficient to date this Gospel some years 
after a. d. 70, probably between 70 and 80. The place of 
composition is unknown. 

Acts of the Apostles 

Date and Sources. — While this Christian writing may 
have been produced at any time between a. d. 70 and 100, 
the most probable date lies between 75 and 90. The author 

132 



CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 

of the third Gospel was the author of Acts also. While 
Luke seems to have composed his account of the spread of 
Christianity late in the century, it is generally understood 
that he used earlier written sources for his history. Such 
sections as Acts 16. 10-17; 20. 5-16; 21. 1-18; 27. 1; 28. 16 
must have been written by him contemporaneously with the 
events described. But this exceedingly valuable historical 
material probably remained in his diary unpublished until 
it found a place in Acts. Other written sources were used 
in the first chapters of his book. No doubt the accounts of 
Pentecost, Peter's preaching, and subsequent events in 
Jerusalem were recorded in writing by eyewitnesses; and 
such writings, like the numerous Gospels, were in circula- 
tion in the early church. 

Motives for Writing Acts. — At least two leading motives 
led to the writing and publication of Acts: (1) It was 
desired to present a sketch of the development of Chris- 
tianity, especially in its movements across the boundaries 
of Judea and Judaism into the Roman world. The author's 
interest centers in Paul, the great apostle to the Gentiles. 
(2) A second motive, though not so dominant, is seen in 
Luke's desire to show that Christianity, in its progress 
through the provinces of the empire, was not antagonistic to 
Roman rule (examine Acts 13. 12; 16. 35-39; 18. 12-17; 
19. 31, 35-41; 21. 37-40; 22. 25-29; 23. 29; 25. 18, 25; 
26. 31). Recall also the manner in which the book of Acts 
ends. Examine 2 Corinthians 11. 25 and state Paul's own 
testimony concerning his treatment by the Roman authori- 
ties. Luke's endeavor to set Christianity in the most favor- 
able light undoubtedly was due to the fact that, at the 
time he wrote, the new religion was looked upon with dis- 
favor and was provoking hostility on the part of Roman 
authorities. 

The Pastoral Epistles 

1 and 2 Timothy and Titus. — The authorship and date 
of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus are moot questions. The 
question of the Pauline authorship seems bound up with the 
problem whether or not the imprisonment of Paul, with 

133 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

which the book of Acts ends, terminated in release or 
death. The evidence for such release is slight and, for 
many, unconvincing. It is thought too that certain heret- 
ical tendencies which these Epistles oppose did not dis- 
turb the church in the days of Paul. There appears also 
an ecclesiastical organization considerably more developed 
than appears elsewhere in the acknowledged letters of Paul. 
Examine Titus 1. 7; 1 Timothy 3. 2-10; and these letters 
generally for evidences of the developing episcopacy. Sec- 
ond Timothy and Titus, however, it is commonly agreed, 
used genuine, Pauline-written sources. 

The Gospel of John 

Authorship, Date, and Purpose. — The Gospel of John 
was the last written of the four in the New Testament and 
is usually assigned to the Apostle John and believed to have 
been produced by him in the latter part of his life, during 
his Ephesian residence. During the long life of this apostle 
many changes occurred in the church. Although the 
Judaistic controversy was largely an issue of the past, the 
Jews remained bitterly hostile to the Christians. Perse- 
cution by Eoman authorities was beginning to mold the 
individual churches into a consciousness of unity. The let- 
ters of Paul and the earlier Gospels were furnishing mate- 
rials for theological discussions in regard to the funda- 
mentals of Christianity. Heresy was beginning to speak 
with loud voice. In such conditions the need was felt for 
a new and different presentation of the life and work of 
Jesus. Observe the twofold purpose of this Gospel, stated 
in 20. 30, 31. Note that the author does not claim to have 
written a biography of Jesus; on the contrary, he states 
that many incidents that should have a place in a life of 
Jesus are here omitted. He selects certain "signs" out 
of many to prove that Jesus is the Messiah. However, the 
author holds a conception of the Messiah different from 
that which appears in Acts 2. 22 or even in Matthew. 
Eead John 1. 1-5, 14, 18, in connection with 20. 31, and 
consider whether or not the purpose of this book is to 
show that Jesus as Messiah is more than a human being: 

134 



CHBISTIAN LITEEATUEE 

he is a preexistent heavenly Being who came to earth from 
God and who, after a brief life, returned to God. 

Other New-Testament Writings 

James, Jude, and 2 Peter. — These Epistles are discussed 
in Chapter V. Many problems may be raised concerning 
purpose, date, and authorship; but the position taken in 
the earlier lesson seems the most tenable. 

The Letter to the Hebrews. — Beexamine what is said of 
this book in Chapter VII. The date, authorship, and 
destination of this book are uncertain. That it was written 
to the church in Eome between the years a. d. 70 and 96 
and designed to meet the needs of a comparatively small 
group of leaders of the Eoman church, dismayed and suf- 
fering from the Neronian persecutions, seems probable. 

1, 2, and 3 John and Revelation. — These writings 
most probably were written in the last years of the apos- 
tolic age. They were intended to check certain heretical 
opinions that appeared in the churches of Asia in the latter 
quarter of the first century. Eevelation was written with 
the further purpose of encouraging the churches to endure 
the persecution of the imperial authorities under Domitian, 
a. d. 81-96. These writings will be examined more in de- 
tail in Chapter XII. 

Outside the Canon 

There are indications in the New Testament that early 
Christian literature was more abundant than that which 
survives in our New-Testament canonical Scriptures. Ex- 
amine Luke 1. 1 ; 1 Corinthians 7. 1 ; 5. 9 ; Colossians 4. 16, 
for evidences of lost Christian writings. No doubt large 
numbers of letters and tracts were produced by first-cen- 
tury Christianity which, by accident or lack of merit, 
have not survived. There are extant three Christian writ- 
ings that did not find their way into the canon but which 
are of importance in the understanding of the apostolic age. 
Two of these already have been used in these studies. 
The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles is discussed in Chap- 
ter V. The Epistle of Barnabas was written probably at 

135 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND EEFOBMEES 

Alexandria between a. d. 70 and 80. It is a pastoral letter 
breathing moral earnestness and a deeply spiritual life. 
The Epistle of Clement was written by the bishop of the 
Eoman church to the church of Corinth about 96 and 
was intended to heal the factions which had broken out 
among the Christians at Corinth. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

The most striking result of a survey of the rise of New 
Testament literature is the fact that Christianity did not 
spring from the New Testament. The Bible has been in 
use so long as the chief ground of appeal for the reality 
and truth of the Christian experience that it is often dif- 
ficult to imagine an age when this was not the case. The 
New Testament is one of the products of Christianity. It 
is a literary expression of the religious conscious- 
ness of the apostolic age. Primarily these writ- 
ings did not create this new religious experience. They 
tended to make the religious consciousness of Christian 
leaders the standard religious experience of Christian com- 
munities and in this manner alone contributed to the 
creation of apostolic Christianity. 

The facts just stated should enable us to make the best 
use of the New Testament to-day. We must see in these 
writings not a final presentation of the Christian conscious- 
ness but a rich and noteworthy exhibit of the Christian 
experience in the years of an extraordinarily quickened 
spiritual age. The Christian consciousness opened glori- 
ously in Jesus Christ. He revealed the Christian life in 
its fullness of spiritual vision, social feeling, and filial 
affection. What we realize partially and at intervals was 
with him a full and permanent possession. In immediate 
contact with his glorious life the first disciples were stirred 
unto heights of spiritual living such as seldom have been 
repeated. It was from these spiritual heights that this New 
Testament literature has sprung. If these apostolic writ- 
ings are to have more than historical value they must stir 
us to climb the heights for ourselves. A living church 
ever will be creating a Christian literature. The apostolic 

136 



CHEISTIAN LITEKATUKE 

writings, aside from their measureless value in preserving 
an account of the beginnings of Christianity, should find 
their justification in the measure in which they inspire new 
epochs of religion and indicate that all such new ages, as 
one of their expressions, must give their visions, beliefs, 
and triumphs literary form. 

The Luke of Books 

What Do You Read? — To know a few great books in- 
timately is an essential test of a cultured life. He who 
hears above the sensual, materialistic, hurried clamor of 
the hour the call of even a small library of the works of the 
masters is secure against a thousand ills. When shall we 
learn that noble thought offers an escape from the petty and 
mean in human affairs ? Above the lure of baseball, golf, 
theater, dinners, business, do you know the seductive attrac- 
tion of noble literature ? Has the New Testament made its 
appeal to you as an imperishable library of the beginnings 
of the greatest religious and social movement in human 
history ? 

The New Testament Halos the Art of Letter Writing. — 
The great art of letter writing, according to Sam Weller, is 
in setting the reader to wish there was more. How one 
wishes that we had a letter of Paul to Christians in Athens 
and Troas, or to Peter and Mark in later years ! How we 
would pore over the letters of the Twelve written to tell 
us of their separate impressions of their Master! Paul's 
letters to urge a Christian master to receive his runaway 
slave, to comfort those who grieved for their dead, to ex- 
press his gratitude for generous gifts from friends, to 
admonish the leaders of a church to clear themselves from 
scandals, and to strangers about their common inherit- 
ance in Jesus Christ — such letters have forever glorified 
the art of correspondence. 

Do Your Present Best. — The one way of accomplishing 
an enduring work is to put your best into the immediate 
task. Paul never could have dreamed that his little letter 
to Philemon would be read to-day throughout the world. 
The author of the fourth Gospel never could have im- 

137 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOEMEKS 

agined that his book would be translated into all the lan- 
guages of the earth. The apostles wrote for special, imme- 
diate needs. They had no conception of a sacred canon. 
But they put their best into them. They were seeking to 
make the eternal kingdom of God a living thing in the lives 
of their contemporaries. This is the one safe rule to give 
one's deeds immortality. If you put your best into the 
immediate occasions of life, in this best of to-day there 
will be elements that live eternally. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What events created the necessity of a Christian litera- 
ture in the early church? 

2. What effect did the expectation of an early return of 
Christ to set up his Kingdom have upon the development of 
Christian writings in the apostolic age? 

3. Give the chronological order of the New-Testament 
Scriptures. 

4. State some of the problems that caused Paul to write 
to the church at Thessalonica; at Corinth; at Rome. 

5. In what way did Paul's imprisonment influence the tone 
of his letters? 

6. What relation do the four Gospels bear to one another? 

7. Discuss the authorship and date of Mark, Matthew, Luke, 
John. 

8. Who wrote Acts, and what was his purpose? 

9. What sources of materials were available to the author 
of Acts? 

10. Why is the life and work of one man emphasized so 
greatly? 

11. How do the Epistles help us to understand Acts more 
fully? 

12. State what you know about 1 and 2 Peter, James, Jude, 
Hebrews, 1, 2, and 3 John, and Revelation. 

13. What is the present value of The Teaching of the Twelve 
Apostles? the Epistle of Barnabas? the Epistle of Clement? 

14. What gaps in the record of the apostolic church does 
our extant literature leave unfilled? 

15. In what sense is the New Testament a product of 
Christianity? 

Eeferences for Eeading 
Paul and His Epistles, Hayes, pages 449-82. 
The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 398-423. 
The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 273-98. 
History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume I, pages 
570-863. 

138 



CHAPTEE XI 

CHUKCH ORGANIZATION IN THE APOSTOLIC 

AGE 

At the beginning of the gospel preaching there was no 
church; at the close of the century churches were organ- 
ized in every place where the gospel of Christ had got a 
foothold. It is not easy for churchmen to-day to imagine 
a time when there were no church organizations to conduct 
the evangelistic and missionary enterprises of Christianity. 
To think of Christianity apart from churches with creeds, 
forms of worship, rules, settled ministry, councils, edu- 
cational and charitable institutions, requires imagination. 
Yet in the first years of Christianity there were few or 
none of these. 

The Christian Ministry 

The Missionary Ministry. — During the earliest years the 
church of the apostolic age was without a settled ministry. 
There was little thought of church organization. The 
expected early return of Christ precluded the felt need of 
a formal church life. Christianity was essentially a mis- 
sionary propaganda; therefore, the first ministers of the 
church were primarily missionaries. 

(a) Apostles. — Naturally the twelve who had been 
trained by Jesus became the first preachers. Examine 
Matthew 19. 28; Luke 22. 28, 29 and consider the impor- 
tant position in the church to which the Twelve believed 
their relation to Jesus assigned them. Eecall from pre- 
vious chapters what is known concerning the mission 
preaching of these men chosen by Jesus to carry on the 
work of building up the Messianic kingdom. Eead Gala- 
tians 1. 19; 2. 8-9; 1 Thessalonians 1. 1; 2. 6; 1 Corin- 
thians 4. 6-9; Eomans 16. 7, and name others who were 
apostles. Eecall what is known of these men, their mes- 

139 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND KEFOKMERS 

sages, the work they accomplished, and the objects for 
which they strove; and consider whether the apostles were 
not primarily missionaries, who, for the most part (Acts 1. 
22; 4. 33), could tell at firsthand the story of Christ's 
resurrection. It is probable that the apostles were quite 
numerous in the apostolic age, and that later generations 
came to restrict the name to the Twelve and to Paul. 

(b) Prophets.— Read Acts 2. 16, 17; 1 Corinthians 14. 
29-32, and consider to what extent prophecy was regarded 
as a permanent and universal characteristic of the Mes- 
sianic age and the Messianic people. Note especially 1 Cor- 
inthians 14. 24, 31, 39 and state the measure of the 
prophetic gift in the Corinthian church. From 1 Corin- 
thians 14. 3, 24, 31 what is the chief function of prophecy 
according to Paul? While prophecy seems to have been 
common in the apostolic age, there were individuals in 
whom the gift of inspiration was so clearly manifested that 
they were known generally as prophets. Examine Acts 
16. 6, 7; Galatians 2. 2; 1 Corinthians 7. 10, 11; 14. 37; 
Revelation 1. 1-3, and state the subjects with which 
prophecy was concerned. Note especially Paul's statement 
(2 Corinthians 12. 1-10) of the large place which revela- 
tions had in his life and, consequently, of the prophetic 
character of his entire ministry. The return of Christ 
and the prelude of the Messianic age seem to have been 
a common subject of the prophets of the apostolic age. 
Note how largely Paul deals with this subject (1 Thessa- 
lonians 4. 13 to 5. 11; 2 Thessalonians 2. 1-12; 1 Corin- 
thians 15. 20-58). Consider also the fact that Revela- 
tion is a prophecy of things ready to come to pass (Revela- 
tion 22. 10). The prophets usually were members of one 
church and confined their activities to their own congrega- 
tion. But note also that, like the apostles, they visited 
other communities (Acts 11. 27; 13. 2-4; 21. 10). 

(c) Apparently all the apostles were prophets. — The 
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (see Chapter V) uses 
the terms "apostles" and "prophet" interchangeably. This 
very interesting Christian document indicates a very active 
missionary propaganda. The prophets are apostles — that 

140 



CHUECH ORGANIZATION 

is, missionaries — and the church expects them to keep ear- 
nestly at their itineraries. The honor in which apostles 
and prophets were held offered temptation to those who 
exercised the missionary office. But it was clearly dis- 
cerned that a selfish, mercenary, hypocritical life was not 
guided by the Spirit of the Lord. 

(d) Teachers. — Eead Acts 13. 1; 1 Corinthians 12. 28; 
Ephesians 4. 11; 1 Timothy 2. 7, and consider (1) whether 
or not the five men mentioned were both prophets and 
teachers; (2) whether or not there were teachers who were 
neither apostles nor prophets; (3) what importance was 
attached to teaching; and (4) in what this teaching con- 
sisted. Although the whole missionary propaganda was 
considered by Paul (1 Timothy 2. 7) as a process of teach- 
ing, teaching seems to have been clearly differentiated from 
prophesying. Observe that the teacher as well as the 
prophet performs his ministry through the Spirit (1 Corin- 
thians 12. 28). a The word of wisdom and the word of 
knowledge" (1 Corinthians 12. 8) seem to characterize the 
work of the teacher. The teacher, instead of depending 
on an immediate revelation, seems, rather, to have spoken 
on various aspects of Christian truth after study and 
meditation. Examine 1 Corinthians 2. 6-16 for Paul's 
conception of the wisdom it became the function of the 
Christian teacher to utter. The teacher no doubt con- 
cerned himself with explaining the death of Jesus, his 
Messianic character, the relation of Judaism to Chris- 
tianity, and the reasonable expectations concerning the 
new world-order in the Messianic age. 

The Settled Ministry. — (a) Apostles, prophets, teachers. 
— The church never has been without its missionaries who 
have pushed its borders into new communities. But there 
early arose the need of a fuller guidance than could be 
given by the apostle who had evangelized a town and estab- 
lished a church. In some cases the apostle gave the 
church an organization (Acts 14. 23), and in other cases 
the missionaries themselves, in course of time, made their 
permanent residence among the new Christian communities. 
Chapter 13 of The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles reads : 

141 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOBMERS 

Every true prophet desiring to settle among you is worthy 
of his food. In like manner a true teacher is also 
worthy, like the workman, of his food. Every first 
fruit, then, of the produce of the wine vat and of the thresh- 
ing floor, of thy oxen and of thy sheep, thou shalt take and 
give as the first fruit to the prophets, for they are your chief 
priests. 

Note the exceeding honor in which the true missionary 
prophet is here held. 

(b) Presbyters (or elders), deacons, bishops. — Whether 
or not an apostle took up his residence in a Christian com- 
munity, there were certain duties to perform which required 
administrative officers. Where the congregation outgrew 
a private house, a room or hall needed to be secured and 
cared for. Means of baptism, the elements of the Lord's 
Supper, the care of the Old-Testament Scriptures, and 
copies of the Gospels and apostolic letters required some 
one to provide for these needs. When the congregation 
met for worship, someone must preside. Such leadership 
naturally fell to the first convert (1 Corinthians 16. 15, 16). 
If later converts occupied a more influential place in the 
community, this leadership might naturally pass into their 
hands. The missionaries who evangelized a village or city 
may have designated the persons who thus were to have 
charge of the simple necessities of church organization. 
Paul and Barnabas are stated to have done this (Acts 14. 
23). Luke calls these presidents or overseers of the congre- 
gations "presbyters." No doubt Paul also had appointed 
the presbyters of Ephesus (Acts 20. 17). 

Functions of Presiding Officers. — In Paul's earlier let- 
ters there are no special names given to those who exer- 
cised these administrative duties. They were simply men 
"who had set themselves to minister unto the saints" (1 
Corinthians 16. 15). These presiding officers must have 
taken on early some of the functions of the apostle, the 
prophet, and the teacher. If the order of church service 
laid down by Paul in 1 Corinthians 14. 1-36 was to be 
followed decorously, the presiding officers necessarily must 
have taken on the functions of admonition and exhorta- 

142 



CHURCH ORGANIZATION 

tion. Examine 1 Thessalonians 5. 12, 13; 1 Corinthians 

15. 16, and observe the urgency with which Paul counsels 
the church's obedience of these officials. Read 1 Thessa- 
lonians 5. 14, 15 for an apparent counsel of these presidents 
of the churches. It is the last written letter of Paul which 
first uses special names for these presidents. Ex- 
amine Philippians 1. 1. While the word "deacon" occurs 
here, it does not appear that the word was used by Paul 
to designate a particular class of church officials. The word 
"deacon" is applied to the apostles (Romans 11. 13; 1 Co- 
rinthians 3. 5) ; to those who preside over the congregations 
(1 Corinthians 16. 15) ; to those dispensing charity (Ro- 
mans 16. 1, 2; 2 Corinthians 8. 1-4). (In these refer- 
ences the English version translates the Greek word "dea- 
con" into "minister.") This word, used so variously, shows 
that no church official known as "deacon" existed in the 
churches founded by Paul. 

Deacon and Bishop Synonymous. — It is probable that 
these presidents of the congregations, such as Stephanas 
(1 Corinthians 16.15), Aquila and Prisca (1 Corinthians 

16. 19), the five men named in Romans 16. 14, and the five 
men and women leaders mentioned in Romans 16. 15 
eventually came to be known as deacons — that is, ministers 
of the congregation. They were deacons not in the sense of 
an order of clergy but simply as persons who ministered to 
the congregation in the widest possible variety of ways. 
Such presidents of the churches also came to be known by 
another name, which was in common use among all sorts of 
Greek organizations for the committee or council which 
was in charge of the administration of funds. At an early 
date the Christian congregation felt the need of caring 
for its poor (James 1. 27; 1 Timothy 5. 9, 16). The 
"common fund" was an established feature of church life 
by the end of the first century. 1 It is quite natural that 
the presbyters, or presidents of the congregations, should 
come to be known as deacons because they ministered in a 
variety of ways to the churches, but also that they should 



* See Chapter VII. 

143 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND EEFOEMEES 

be called by the name in common use among Greek socie- 
ties for those who administered funds. This name was 
"Episkopos" which means overseer, superintendent, or, 
in modern speech, bishop. At the time of the death of 
Paul no further distinction existed among the terms "pres- 
byters," "deacons," "bishops." All were used to designate 
the presidents of the congregations, the chief heads of the 
churches (see Acts 20. 17, 28). Such officers, in the first 
place, were administrators of the affairs of the congre- 
gations, but as apostolic control of the churches gave way 
they took up more and more functions such as now are 
exercised by clergymen. 

The Function of Bishop Enlarged. — As the higher func- 
tion of teaching, exhortation, and spiritual discipline came 
to be exercised by these officials (Hebrews 13. 7, 17 ; 1 Timo- 
thy 3. 1-7), the name "bishop" clung to them to express 
their function of supervision of the religious life of the 
churches (1 Peter 2. 25). By the beginning of the second 
century two distinct changes have occurred in the relation 
of these spiritual overseers, or presidents, of the churches. 
There is now only one bishop in each church, and at least 
in the city churches of Syria and Asia Minor he has be- 
come the monarchical ruler of the local church, surrounded 
by a council of presbyters. 2 First Timothy 3. 8-13 gives 
the qualifications of deacons. Observe that women as well 
as men hold this position. The difference of qualifications 
between bishops and deacons is slight. Perhaps here their 
duties were what they clearly became in the second century : 
carrying gifts to the poor from the common relief fund, dis- 
tributing the bread and wine at the Lord's Supper, and as- 
sisting the bishop by reporting to him individuals needing 
his spiritual care. Thus, by the beginning of the second cen- 
tury the apostles, prophets, and teachers, on the one hand, 
and the presidents of the congregation, on the other, in 
many places had developed into bishops, who were rulers of 
local churches, who had councils of presbyters, and who 
carried out their functions with assistants known as dea- 



1 See the letters of Ignatius. 

144 



CHUKCH ORGANIZATION 

cons. ThiSj at least, is the clearest explanation of the ex- 
traordinarily difficult question of church officials in the 
apostolic age. 

Worship 

The Place of Meeting. — Perhaps more important than its 
officials is the life of the apostolic church in its meetings 
to hear the Christian message, to strengthen the Christian 
experience, and to foster Christian fellowship. The earliest 
Christians at first conformed to the customary Jewish 
worship and met in the usual place. Where was this ? (Acts 
2. 46; 3. 1, 8.) They seem to have selected a particular 
spot for meeting one another (3. 11 j 5. 12). Yet a rite, 
peculiarly Christian, necessitated gathering in private 
houses (2. 46). Private dwellings henceforth became the 
customary meeting places of Christians throughout the 
apostolic age. Examine the following references and state 
all that may be learned concerning the meeting places of 
Christians: 1. 13; 12. 12; 20. 8, 9; Eomans 16. 5; 1 Corin- 
thians 16. 19; Colossians 4. 15; Philemon 2. No doubt 
the lecture hall of Tyrannus was used by the church for 
various meetings (Acts 19. 9). There is no record of 
church buildings earlier than the third century. 

The Time of Meeting. — In the first exuberant days of the 
church's birth every day was a day of worship (Acts 2. 46), 
and no doubt during the stay of an apostle in a town or 
city the meetings of Christians were of daily occurrence 
(Acts 19. 9, 10) . But the first day of the week early became 
peculiarly sacred to the church. The Didache (chapter 14) 
makes clear that our Sunday early became the chief day for 
Christian worship: "On the Lord's own day gather your- 
selves together and break bread and give thanks : first con- 
fessing your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be 
pure." By the end of the first century the customary and 
chief day for worship was Sunday. Jewish Christians kept 
their Sabbath also as a day of rest from labor and for 
worship. The Lord's Day was not a day of rest from labor 
during the apostolic age and not generally a day of rest 
until the empire became Christian under Constantine. Paul 

145 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOBMEKS 

apparently was opposed to the introduction of the Jewish 
Sabbath among the Gentile churches (Colossians 2. 16, 17; 
Galatians 4. 10) and considered every day alike (Romans 
14. 5). Ignatius, writing about a. d. 106-15, is more 
explicit in his objection to the Jewish Sabbath: "Let us 
therefore no longer keep the Sabbath after the Jewish man- 
ner. Let every friend of Christ keep the Lord's Day as a 
festival, the resurrection day, the queen and chief of all 
the days of the week." 

The Hour of Worship. — The Lord's Day not being a rest 
day, either in the Jewish or in the Gentile world, the meet- 
ings for worship naturally were held in the evening or in 
the early morning. Examine Acts 20. 7 for an instance of 
such hours of service. Here the Christians were following 
the Jewish custom of beginning the sacred day with sunset 
and ending it with the next sunset. Pliny, the Eoman pro- 
consul of Bithynia, in his letter to the emperor Trajan 
says that certain Christians whom he had examined de- 
clared that "the whole of their guilt or their error was that 
they met on a stated day before it was light and addressed a 
form of prayer to Christ as to a divinity, binding them- 
selves by a solemn oath never to commit any fraud, theft, 
or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust 
when they should be called upon to deliver it; after which 
it was their custom to separate and then reassemble to eat 
in common a harmless meal." If one compares Pliny's re- 
port with Luke's account of the service at Troas and remem- 
bers that the Lord's Supper was a central object of Chris- 
tian gatherings from the beginning of the church (1 Corin- 
thians 11. 23-25; Acts 2. 46), it would seem that two serv- 
ices were held on the Lord's Day: one Saturday evening, 
the other early Sunday morning. 

The Nature of the LordVDay Service. — (a) The evening 
service. — The chief object of the evening service was to par- 
take of the Lord's Supper. Examine again what is said by 
Pliny, also the report of the service at Troas (1 Corinthians 
11. 18-34, and Acts 2. 46) ; then consider the important 
place this sacrament held in the early church. The Lord's 
Supper followed a common meal. It was the closing rite of 

146 



CHUECH OKGANIZATION 

a social meal designed to express a full consciousness of 
Christian fellowship. The Lord's Supper and the common 
meal were for members only. 

(b) The morning service. — The statement of Pliny makes 
clear that the Christians had an early-morning service. 
What were the constituent elements of this twilight service, 
according to Pliny? Paul (1 Corinthians 14) deals at 
some length with this second service. What striking 
difference existed between this service and the one 
discussed above (14. 24) ? Teaching and prophecy 
also were parts of this service. When no distinguished 
teacher or prophet was present at the service, these portions 
of the service were open to all. Eead again what is said 
by Paul (14. 29-32) about conducting this part of the 
service. Speaking with tongues also occurred in the serv- 
ices of the Corinthian church. Examine 1 Corinthians 14. 
2, 4, 13, 14 and observe that this exercise was a kind of pray- 
ing, when the speaker's words were meaningless to others 
and were the expression, even to the one who used them, 
of no rational ideas. They were not really words — that is, 
they conveyed no orderly thought to anyone. They were 
the expression of an ecstatic mood of thanksgiving and 
praise to God. It is impossible to know to what extent of 
time and place the order of the Lord's Day services sketched 
above is applicable to the churches. That the love feast 
featured in the services of Asia Minor in the early part of 
the second century is seen in the letter of Ignatius to the 
church of Smyrna. The Sunday service described by Jus- 
tin Martyr 3 near the middle of the second century lacked 
the common meal and was composed of readings from the 
Old Testament and apostolic letters, exhortation by the 
presiding official, and prayers by the congregation standing. 
This was followed by the Lord's Supper. 

The Rite of Baptism. — Baptism was a condition of admit- 
tance to the church from the beginning (Acts 2. 38; Gala- 
tians 3. 27; 1 Corinthians 1. 13). Judging from 
1. 14-17, what importance did Paul attach to the 

3 Apology, Chapter LXVII. 

147 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

rite? Consider Paul's conception from his discussion in 
Romans 6. 3-11. May any inference be drawn from 6. 4 and 
Colossians 2. 12 concerning the mode of baptism? The 
manner in which the rite was administered undoubtedly 
greatly varied. The Didache orders : 

Thou shalt baptize in the name of the Father and of the 
Son and of the Holy Spirit in running water; but if thou 
hast not living water, then baptize in other water. If thou 
art not able in cold water, then in warm; but if thou hast not 
either, then pour water on the head thrice. But before the 
baptism, let him that baptizeth and him that is baptized fast, 
and any others who are able. Thou shalt order him that is 
baptized to fast a day or two before. 

According to the Didache none but baptized persons might 
partake of the Lord's Supper. This is the implied teaching 
of Paul in connection with the church of Corinth. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Permanent Christian Triumphs. — It is impossible to con- 
ceive any permanent Christian triumphs apart from the 
church. A continual succession of missionaries from the 
day of Pentecost until this day could have made no endur- 
ing impression upon the world. Indeed, the very mission- 
ary activities of Christianity are dependent on the church. 
The church conserved the apostolic teaching in many ways. 
The missionary awakened the dawn of finer life in a group 
of residents in town or city and then passed on to new com- 
munities. Such converts, had they not been gathered into 
churches, assembled regularly for instruction, and placed 
under the guidance of the most spiritual and zealous, in- 
evitably would have fallen back into paganism or been 
diverted into the wildest extravagances. 

Christian Fellowship. — The common meal, the com- 
mon faith, the common baptismal rite, and, above 
all, the eucharistic sacrament of bread and wine, with 
its memorial of Golgotha and its prophecy of Christ's 
coming, were mighty agents in creating a social bond of 
extraordinary attractiveness and power. It was in this 
social fellowship with each other and with Christ that the 

148 



CHUECH OEGANIZATION 

new convert was safe. Ignatius, in writing to the Ephe- 
sians, forcefully emphasizes this : "Take heed, then, often 
to come together to give thanks unto God. For when you 
come frequently together in the same place, the powers of 
Satan are destroyed." This fellowship was extended 
ideally far beyond the actual social contact of a single 
community. Paul, in writing to his converts in Corinth, 
addresses them, "Unto the church of God which is at Cor- 
inth." The individual Christian felt himself not merely 
a member of his local society, but ideally a member of an 
organization that rapidly was extending to the remoter 
provinces of the empire. If he traveled from Antioch or 
Ephesus, to Corinth or to Eome, he would find brothers 
who believed his beliefs and were actuated by his hopes. 
Nor was this fellowship limited to living brethren; those 
whose testimony was silenced by death (1 Thessalonians 4. 
16, 17; Hebrews 11. 39, 40) were members still of Christ's 
glorious brotherhood, whose welfare was the concern of all. 

The Monarchical Episcopate an Inevitable Necessity. — 
The distinction between clergy and laity was bound to arise. 
Church organization required officials ; and as their duties 
became more arduous and varied, secular vocations became 
more and more impossible. The monarchical episcopate, 
well developed by the opening of the second century, was 
an inevitable necessity. Many dangers threatened the 
church: heresies, persecution, and economic advantages of 
paganism. Eigid organization, attentive oversight, and 
authoritative teaching could be had alone by the system 
that actually developed in response to needs. 

The Social Implications of the Lord's Day Incalculable. 
— It is a curious thing that the need of a day of rest among 
Gentile Christians was felt so slightly in connection with 
the requirements of the LordVDay services. The fear of a 
Judaizing Christianity blinded Gentile Christianity to the 
social need of a Sabbath. Then, too, the Gentile world was 
neither religiously nor economically organized for a weekly 
cessation from labor. But when the fear of Judaism was 
past, the latent connection of Christianity with Hebrew 
life asserted itself, and the Sabbath became a Christian in- 

149 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

stitution. The social implications of the Lord's Day are 
incalculable. The weekly rest day of Hebrew-Christian 
life by itself alone can well-nigh revolutionize a pagan 
civilization. 

The Church and the Kingdom 

Be Apostolic! — The first apostles were essentially mis- 
sionaries. They were dominated by the passion to share 
with the Jewish and Gentile world the new spiritual life 
awakened in them by their fellowship with Christ. For 
this they lived; for this they died. It was this unceasing 
zeal that gave us the church; it was this same passion to 
bring new converts into a life-enriching fellowship which 
kept the church alive. Is your church merely existing? 
Then devote yourself to the apostolic experience and ideal. 
Begin this day to commend your Christ to some acquaint- 
ance. Be a personal evangelist. Then, too, give yourself 
to the missionary movements of the church. Catch the 
inspiration of the greatest apostolic enterprises since the 
first century. Be an apostle in belief and practice. 

Be a Prophet ! — What is your prophetic experience ? The 
essential mark of the prophet is to live with soul open to the 
immediate direction of God. Is this experience yours? 
Is your life consciously responsive to his will? Do you 
transact the affairs of business, of the family, or civic life, 
of the church, and of your hours of leisure guided by the 
feeling that what you do is a fulfilling of the divine pur- 
pose for you? Here is the source of your religious life. 
If you are truly religious, you will feel that in your life 
God really reveals himself in your choices, in your ideals, 
in the things that are dear to you, in your moral standards. 

Be a Teacher ! — Are you a teacher of religion ? Perhaps 
you are saying religion cannot be taught; religion is the 
product of the indwelling Spirit in the soul of man : it is 
something begotten in us by the living God. "Go, there- 
fore, and teach all nations." It was Jesus, the Teacher, 
who kept his disciples because he alone had the words of 
life. We need a truer conception of teaching. To teach is 
more than to share information with another; it is to pass 

150 



CHUKCH OKGANIZATION 

on one's convictions, enthusiasms, ideals. It is to lift an- 
other into the realm of one's spirit, faith, and life. No 
Christian can keep his experience of Christ apart from the 
teacher's vocation. No clmrch can fulfill its true mission 
in its community unless teaching is one of its chief 
functions. 

"In Remembrance of Me." — What is your thought of and 
feeling toward the Lord's Supper? Is this sacrament for 
you what it was for early Christianity — the visible symbol 
of Christ's presence, the visible token of Christ's promised 
Kingdom, the visible reenacted drama of Christ's passion ? 
Is it only bread and wine you see ? Or, somehow, in this 
rite of the church, taking us back to Golgotha itself, do 
you enter into the presence of the ineffable mystery of 
God's love and Christ's sacrifice ? Forget the bit of bread 
you have eaten and enter, rather, into the mighty fellow- 
ship of Christ's church — Christ's body which is for you: 
Christ and all his disciples until now, a glorious company 
of aspiring, dreaming souls, waiting to receive you into 
their fellowship. Enter in through this mystical drama 
and find your life. Is it the blood of the grape alone ? God 
forbid ! It is the wine of an infinite sacrifice : the pressed 
juices of inextinguishable dreams, unquenchable loves, and 
indestructible hopes ; it is the mystic blood from the heart 
of the eternal God. This is the Christian mystery. This 
sacrament initiates the communicant into the awe-inspiring 
presence of God's love and redemptive passion. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Discuss the terms "apostles," "prophets," and "teachers." 

2. Why was a settled ministry unthought of at first? 

3. What influences finally limited the term "apostle" to 
Paul and the Twelve? 

4. What are the meanings of the terms "presbyter," "dea- 
con," "bishop"? 

5. State the simple needs of a congregation which required 
a presiding officer? 

6. Discuss the development which had taken place in the 
officiary of the church by the beginning of the second century. 

7. What was the character of the worship of Christians im- 
mediately after Pentecost? 

151 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

8. What finally led to a special service and place of meet- 
ing? 

9. Describe the two chief meetings of worship in the early 
church. 

10. Discuss the importance placed upon the rite of baptism. 

11. What service did the church render to the Kingdom in 
the first century? 

12. Discuss the contribution made by the Lord's Supper to 
the developing kingdom of God. 

13. State the argument for baptism to a Gentile convert of 
the first century. 

14. Sum up the contributions made to the social order of 
the Gentile world by the Christian Church in the first cen- 
tury. 

Reading References 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume I, pages 319-68. 

The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 645-72. 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 229-51. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume I, pages 
455-506. 

Article "Bishop" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic Church, 
Hastings. 



152 



CHAPTEE XII 

TRIALS AND TEIUMPHS OP THE APOSTOLIC 
CHURCH 

Preceding chapters have indicated that the gospel won 
its victorious way through the antagonism of Judaizers, 
pagan moral habits, economic problems, and persecution by 
Jewish and Roman authorities into a widespread accept- 
ance and a somewhat compact organization toward the close 
of the first century. This chapter will examine something 
of the internal struggle of the church to avoid forms of 
teaching which would prove destructive of the Christian 
life developed under the guidance of the apostles. 

Heresy 

Reasons for the Possibility of Heresy in the Apostolic 
Age. — In the latter half of the first century church leaders 
frequently warned the Christian communities against false 
and erroneous teachers and apostles. This teaching, which 
was at variance with the main line of apostolic beliefs and 
doctrines, continually spread until, during the second 
century, the church was plunged into a life-and-death 
struggle with its foe. Some of the New-Testament evi- 
dence of these rising sects is found in Colossians 2. 8, 18 ; 
Matthew 24. 11, 24; 2 Peter 2. 1; 1 John 4. 1; Revelation 
2. 2; 19. 20; 20. 10. These references indicate that the 
false teaching might so closely resemble the accepted apos- 
tolic teaching that the very best people in the church could 
be led astray. These erroneous teachings were not neces- 
sarily the attack of the enemies of Christianity ; sometimes, 
at least, they were views that sprang up within the very 
folds of the church. Neither the trials nor the triumphs 
of the apostolic church can be understood apart from the 

153 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND EEFOKMERS 

fact that the beliefs and convictions that finally crystallized 
into doctrines were not given to the churches at one time ; 
they are the result of the process of development. A sketch 
of the development in the beliefs and convictions about the 
person of Jesus will make clear the manner in which heresy 
arose. 

The Person of Christ. — (a) The teaching of the earliest 
Christians at Jerusalem. — The early chapters of Acts are 
believed to contain the oldest written Christian records. 
At any rate, the speeches of Peter and Stephen report un- 
doubtedly the views of the Christian community of the 
first days. Eeview what is said in Chapter I concerning 
"The Risen Christ" and "The Task of the Disciples." Also 
examine again the topic "The Preaching of the First Days" 
in Chapter IV. Observe that Jesus of Nazareth and the 
Messiah are positively identified (Acts 2. 36). Recall the 
"Servant of Jehovah" prophecies in Isaiah 42. 1-4; 49. 1-6; 
50. 4-9; 52. 13 to 53. 12. Now examine Acts 3. 13, 26; 
4. 30 and consider whether Peter identifies Jesus with the 
Servant of Jehovah or not. Observe also that the Messianic 
title "Son of man" is applied to Jesus by the martyr 
Stephen (7. 56). Note that the title "Lord" is applied 
both to God (4. 24) and to Jesus (2. 36; 7. 59). Undoubt- 
edly, previous to the crucifixion, the disciples believed that 
Jesus was the Messiah (Luke 24. 21), but this belief had 
been dispelled by his death. The resurrection of Jesus re- 
vived this belief into solid conviction. Jesus stood forth 
revealed as Messiah, or Christ. 

(b) Paul's conception of Christ. — Paul advances this de- 
velopment of belief in the person of Jesus. Jesus is Christ 
and Lord (Romans 1. 4). He is also the "Son of God" 
(1. 4). Read closely 8. 9-11 and state whether Paul says 
that the "Spirit of Christ" and the "Spirit of God" are 
really one Spirit, or whether he is saying that the Spirit of 
Christ and the Spirit of God each may dwell in man, and 
that the religious effects of such indwelling are the same. 
To help answer this consult 1 Corinthians 3. 23; 11. 3; 
15. 28; Philippians 2. 11, and observe the positive way in 
which Paul subordinates Christ to God. In the light of 

154 



TKIALS AND TRIUMPHS 

these last references what does Paul mean by his statement 
in Colossians 2. 9? See also (Philippians 2. 6) the asser- 
tion of Christ's equality with God. For Paul, Christ, whom 
he also identified with Jesus, existed previously to the birth 
of Jesus. Paul's conception of Christ wavers between his 
Hebrew conviction of one God and his Christian conscious- 
ness of the exalted nature of Christ. For him there is one 
God who has created all things, in whom all beings live, 
and who dwells uniquely in all who honor his Christ; but 
at the same time Christ is a preexistent, exalted, divine 
Being, who also dwells in the life of the Christian believer. 

(c) The conception of Christ in Hebrews. — The author 
of Hebrews defines the term "Son of God" in such a way 
as to make Jesus divine in the same sense in which God 
is divine. Jesus was an active agent in the creation of the 
worlds (Hebrews 1. 2) ; he is the "effulgence of God's 
glory" and the "very image of his substance" (1. 3). Jesus 
"upholds all things by the word of his power" and is now 
God, whose throne is forever and ever (1. 8). Yet there 
are statements that subordinate the person of Jesus to God. 
The Son does not occupy the throne; he is at the throne's 
right hand. He is appointed to his high priesthood by God 
(3. 2). It is God who has made him heir of all things (1. 
2). Here again the exact relation of Christ to God is left 
uncertain. 

(d) The conception of Christ in the fourth Qospel. — 
The fourth Gospel carries further Paul's teaching concern- 
ing Jesus as the exalted Son of God. For Paul it was the 
resurrection which made apparent this Sonship. The 
author of the fourth Gospel sees this exalted glory of God's 
Son in the earthly life of Jesus. Eead John 1. 1-3 and state 
what divine qualities are attributed to Jesus. Examine 
10. 30, 37, 38 ; 12. 45 ; 14. 9-11 ; 17. 21 ; 20. 28, and state the 
emphasis upon the divine nature of Jesus. Yet here too 
Jesus is subordinated to God. God is greater than Jesus 
(14. 28) ; God tells Jesus what to say to men (8. 26, 40) ; 
the works of Jesus must copy God's works (5. 19-23). Ob- 
serve the manner in which the equality of Jesus with God and 
his subordination to God are expressed side by side in this 

155 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

last reference. John, like Paul and the author of Hebrews, 
believes that there is only one God ; yet despite the contra- 
diction involved, which they did not attempt to resolve, 
Jesus also was God for them. 

(e) The process of development in Christian interpreta- 
tion gave opportunity for varying teaching. — Thus, during 
the apostolic age, within the Christian communities there 
was a changing content in the beliefs concerning the na- 
ture of Jesus. For the first Jerusalem group of Christians 
he was "a man approved of God by mighty works and 
wonders and signs which God did by him" (Acts 2. 22). 
For the author of the fourth Gospel he was God, the Crea- 
tor of the universe, existent from the beginning of all 
things. This process of development in Christian interpre- 
tation of the person of Jesus also characterized the apostolic 
interpretation of his work. Since the meaning of his per- 
son and the manner of his redemptive work were not fixed 
doctrines furnished to the church at its origin, but were 
gradually attained by reflection upon the life and death 
and resurrection of Jesus, the opportunity for teaching at 
variance with generally accepted convictions was always 
open. 

Heresy in the Apostolic Age. — (a) At Colossce. — Read 
Colossians 2. 8, 9 and observe the warning against teachers 
whose reasoning robs Christ of his divine prerogatives. 
Colossians 1. 15-17 seems to be directed against these specu- 
lations, which belittle the exalted character of Jesus. The 
same errorists appear in 2. 18, 19, where the worshiping of 
angels is part of the false conception of the creation of the 
world. These teachers were emphasizing asceticism (2. 
21-23). 

(b) In the pastoral Epistles. — A false asceticism is con- 
demned in 1 Timothy 4. 1-5. What relation is here said 
to exist between these errorists and the church ? What ori- 
gin is assigned to their view and practices ? Note the man- 
ner in which views alien to Christian tradition are charac- 
terized (4. 7). These heretics profess superior knowledge 
(2 Timothy 3. 7; Titus 1. 16). They deny the resurrec- 
tion (2 Timothy 2. 18). They are guilty of many moral 

156 



TEIALS AND TRIUMPHS 

lapses from the accepted Christian standards (3. 1-9, 13; 
Titus 1.16). 

(c) 2 Peter and Jude. — Eead carefully 2 Peter 2. 1-22 
and note the evils charged against the false teachers. What 
beliefs of these heretics are condemned ? (2. 1 ; 3. 4.) With 
what immoral practices are they charged? (2. 2, 3, 10, 13, 
14.) What is this author's answer to their denial of the 
second advent of Christ? Why are they likened to Ba- 
laam ? What doctrinal aberrations are charged against cer- 
tain errorists by Jude? (Verses 4, 10.) Of what immorali- 
ties are they guilty? (Verses 3, 8, 11, 16, 18, 19.) Observe 
the remarkable words that characterize the dangerous lead- 
ership of these heretics (verses 12, 13). Note the refer- 
ences to Cain and Balaam. 

(d) 1 John and Revelation. — The same sectaries appar- 
ently called forth the First Epistle of John. The true knowl- 
edge of the Christ experienced by John is sharply con- 
trasted with the knowledge which the false teachers claimed. 
Eead 1 John 1. 1-4 in the light of this purpose. Some- 
thing of their false doctrines is indicated in 2. 22 ; 4. 3-6. 
Their laxity in morals is condemned in 2. 4, 9. Examine 
Eevelation 2. 2, 6, 14, 15 for other marks of the groups 
within the church whose beliefs and practices were separat- 
ing them from apostolic teaching and life. 

Gnosticism. — During the second century there came into 
great prominence a class of Christians who held certain 
speculative views concerning the world, evil, God, Christ, 
and redemption. These were called Gnostics because of 
their emphasis upon knowledge as the key to life and re- 
demption. The struggle between these Gnostics and the 
church was sharp and prolonged. There were many dif- 
ferences in their views, but there were some points of gen- 
eral agreement. They taught that our world is a mixture of 
rational and irrational, light and darkness, evil and good- 
ness. Far above our world is a realm of exalted goodness 
and light, where the supreme Being dwells. Our world was 
not created by this exalted Being but by a divine Being 
of lower order, who is ignorant of the existence of the 
supreme God. This Maker of our world is Jehovah, the 

157 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

God of the Jews. He has done what he could to make the 
world better but he has undertaken a hopeless task. Christ, 
who is a wonderful concentration of the wisdom and good- 
ness of the supreme Being, has entered into our world to 
redeem those human souls in whom there is a longing to 
escape the evil elements of the world. This Christ, a spir- 
itual Being, descended upon the man Jesus but left him 
previously to the crucifixion. Salvation is secured to such 
souls as catch the significance of his coming. To hold the 
true view of the universe and to be conscious of the high 
destiny through Christ is to possess salvation. 

The Docetists. — These were a Gnostic sect whose views of 
Jesus were different from those expressed above. They held 
that the Messiah, a pure spiritual Being, took bodily form 
in Jesus, but that the body the disciples knew in Palestine 
was not real flesh and blood; it was appearance, phantom. 
Christ therefore did not really suffer and die and rise 
again. Read again the Epistles of John in the light of 
these views, which, toward the end of the first century, 
began to spread in the Christian Church. Note especially 
the emphatic protest against Docetism in 1 John 1. 14 ; 2. 
18, 19; 4. 2, 5, 6; 2 John, verse 7. Polycarp, who was a 
disciple of the Apostle John, condemns the Gnostics for 
denying the resurrection and the Judgment. The Gnostic 
views of redemption discarded belief in the resurrection 
of the body, the general Judgment, and the second coming 
of Christ. 

Ignatius, in refuting this heresy in several letters to 
the churches of Asia Minor, reveals the widespread and 
powerful influence of these views upon the church at the 
opening of the second century. To the church at Tralles 
he writes : 

There are some vain talkers and deceivers, not Christians, 
but Christ betrayers. They alienate Christ from the Father. 
They calumniate his being born of the Virgin; they are 
ashamed of his cross; they deny his passion; they do not 
believe in his resurrection. Stop your ears, therefore, when 
anyone speaks to you at variance with Jesus Christ who was 
truly begotten of God and of the Virgin. He truly assumed 
a body. He did in reality both eat and drink. He was cruci- 

158 



TEIALS AND TEIUMPHS 

lied and died under Pontius Pilate. He really, and not merely 
in appearance, was crucified and died. He also rose again 
in three days. 1 

The Failure of Gnosticism. — Gnosticism did not fail 
solely because of its doctrine or its ethics ; for its doctrines 
were not altogether error, and its moral outlook was not 
all libertine. The Gnostics emphasized one aspect of the 
higher life : knowledge. In pursuit of knowledge they were 
led into speculative extravagance. Other elements of the 
Christian life were ignored or denied. Universal Chris- 
tianity had a richer social vision, a deeper ethical con- 
sciousness, a truer democratic spirit, a more trustworthy 
historical sense. The defeat of Gnosticism was the prac- 
tical consciousness triumphing over the speculative con- 
sciousness within the church. 

Apostasy 

Reasons for Apostasy. — Economic hardships, social disad- 
vantages, the lure of pagan morals, or the suspicion of gov- 
ernment authorities were sufficient in many cases to turn 
the new disciple away from his brethren and his faith. 
When these causes centered in persecution by Eoman offi- 
cials, the danger of denial of Christianity became acutely 
pronounced. Pliny's famous letter to Trajan, revealing the 
situation in Bithynia, is typical of the situation everywhere. 
He says of certain persons accused of being Christians : 

Some among them at first confessed themselves Christians 
but immediately afterward denied it; the rest owned indeed 
that they had been of that number formerly but had now 
— some above three years, others more, and a few above 
twenty years — renounced that error. 

Apparently the fear of death drove many half-hearted 
Christians back into paganism. 

The Test of Emperor Worship. — Throughout Asia Minor, 
toward the close of the first century, the worship of the 
reigning Eoman emperor became the test on the part of 
the authorities to distinguish Christians from pagans. 

» Chapter IX. 

159 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND KEFOKMERS 

Pliny reports of those who denied that they were Chris- 
tians : 

They repeated after me an invocation to the gods and 
offered religious rites with wine and incense before your 
[Trajan] statue, which for that purpose I had ordered to be 
brought, together with those of the gods, and even reviled 
the name of Christ; whereas there is no forcing, it is said, 
those who are really Christians into any of these compliances. 

The Background of the Book of Revelation. — It is this 
emperor worship and the persecution of the church, which 
its institution involved, which is the dark background of 
the book of Revelation. Something of the mode of wor- 
ship is given in the foregoing quotation from Pliny. Great 
effort was made to commend this worship to the people by 
priests of Asia. Pretended miracles were performed in the 
sight of the people. Through some trickery fire seemed to 
fall from heaven, and the image of the emperor was made 
to speak (Revelation 13. 13, 15). 

The book of Revelation, Pliny's correspondence with Tra- 
jan, and the Epistle of Clement indicate that the church 
suffered considerable persecution during the reign of Domi- 
tian. Some were exiled (Revelation 1. 9), many suffered 
hardship in business, many were tortured, many were put 
to death. Some form of boycott or petty harassing of 
Christians was indulged in (13. 16, 17), or some religious 
restriction was put upon trade such as would exclude 
Christians from the markets. Open avowal of Christ was 
death (13. 15). Martyrdom claimed its toll drawn from 
many provinces during the reign of Domitian. Rome was 
drunk with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus (17. 6). 

Church and Empire. — The attempt to universalize em- 
peror worship and the consequent bitter persecution of the 
Christians awoke in the church a deep hostility to the em- 
pire. The author of the book of Revelation clearly indi- 
cates this. The red dragon of chapter 12 is "Satan, the 
deceiver of the whole world." The beast coming up out of 
the sea (13. 1) is the Roman Empire, which wields Satan's 
power (13, 4). The worship of the emperor is really the 
worship of Satan (2. 13; 13. 4), and the power of Rome 

160 



TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS 

and the imperial worship extend throughout the world (13. 
8). The same intense antagonism of the church toward 
the empire and the hostility of the imperial power toward 
Christianity are seen in the scarlet woman of chapter 17. 
Rome is this woman, rich and licentious, upheld by a scar- 
let-colored beast — that is, by the imperial power. The 
ceaseless conflict between the church and the empire, in- 
augurated by Nero but more fiercely determined by Domi- 
tian, appears in the statement (17. 14) that the ten horns 
of the beast shall war against the Lamb. The author of 
Revelation was interested especially in the province of 
Asia, where he lived. The religious and civil authorities 
of Asia constitute for him a second beast, with two horns 
symbolizing these two aspects of the government (13. 11). 
The provincial authorities in Asia exercise "all the au- 
thority of the first beast" (Rome) (13. 12) and zealously 
promote the imperial worship. 

The Prophetic Message of the Book of Revelation. — 
Christian loyalty even unto death is the prophetic message 
of Revelation. The author urges the Christians to stand 
firm against both apostasy and the fear of martyrdom. 
This position is urged by three considerations: (1) The 
Roman Empire is doomed to sudden destruction (Revela- 
tion 17. 14). Even if the second coming of Christ should 
not destroy the power of Rome, the empire itself shall be 
shattered by her own princes contending for power (17. 
16) . The woes of the imperial city when destruction comes 
upon her are vividly painted in 18. 8-19. In place of Rome, 
Christ will establish an earthly Kingdom (20. 1-4), wherein 
faithful Christians and martyrs shall live and reign with 
Christ a thousand years. This shall be a kingdom un- 
touched by evil. It is the millennium. After the thousand 
years are passed, the conflict breaks out again, to end in 
the vanquishing of Satan's hosts, who will be tormented 
forever and ever. (2) To be loyal to Christ the Christian 
may suffer at the most for a few days or years; but wor- 
shipers of the emperor and pagan gods shall drink the wine 
of the wrath of God forever. They shall be subjected to 
an undying torture of fire and brimstone (14. 9-11). Judg- 

161 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEBS 

ment already is at hand, and the nations of the world are 
in the winepress of the wrath of God (14. 19). (3) But 
those who are faithful unto Christ enter everlasting 
bliss. They share Christ's eternal kingdom (7. 9, 
13-17), and the bitterness of this life ends in un- 
alloyed bliss. Christ himself needed to be slain to win 
his Kingdom (5. 12), and those who are beheaded in his 
cause shall reign with him (20. 4). The martyr may seem 
to lose all in his loyalty, but in reality he gains all. His 
Christ in taking over the kingdoms of the world (11. 15) 
is guaranty of his servant's eternal blessedness. 

The Book of Revelation. — In this book a Christian 
prophet of the closing decade of the first century seeks to 
steady the faith and preserve the loyalty of the church 
under the bitter persecutions of Domitian. Christians had 
been persecuted by Nero, but little opportunity was given 
under his attacks to apostatize; but now Christians could 
escape the sword and wild beasts by denying Christ. Many 
of the weaker in faith were shrinking from martyrdom. 
It was this author's impassioned purpose to save the church 
from spiritual death. His method is to lift the thought of 
his readers from this world and its common values to an- 
other world, wherein faithful and martyred Christians 
reign with their once slain but now crowned Eedeemer 
and Lord. He was not describing events to take place in 
far-off centuries. For him the Eoman Empire was at the 
threshold of its doom. Eome, filled with grossest immorali- 
ties and drunk with the blood of martyrs (17.5, 6), soon 
will pass away (1. 1; 22. 10). The Christ kingdom dawns. 
Instead of Eome, the city of death, terrifying the world 
from its seven hills, the golden City of God, the New Jeru- 
salem, will be let down upon the earth for the residence of 
God's saints. Be faithful, and the glory of your wildest 
dreams is yours ; deny Christ, and hell, with unnamable tor- 
tures, claims you forever. This is the function of the book 
of Eevelation. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

The Last Quarter of the First Century Important in 

162 



TEIALS AND TRIUMPHS 

Kingdom Development. — The closing decades of the first 
century are exceedingly important in the development of 
Kingdom movements within the church. The church faced 
two foes that threatened its unity and destruction. It was 
at this period that certain permanent principles were 
evolved in connection with heretical teaching. Heresy is 
not necessarily teaching and beliefs contrary to truth. 
Christianity itself began as a Jewish heresy (Acts 24. 14). 
It is a variation from accepted standards. Whether the 
new departure from prevailing beliefs will justify itself or 
not remains to be seen. Many Gnostics were as sincere as 
the other Christians. Many of their teachings were natural 
developments of apostolic utterances. In the long run 
Gnosticism went down to defeat because it lacked power 
to do the best work in the sphere of conduct. These 
first heresies, which troubled the church, stressed specula- 
tion and knowledge to the neglect of moral and social du- 
ties. Therefore, they were doomed to perish. The final 
judgment of a religion is not its doctrines but its deeds. In 
any age when doctrines are the test of saintliness, life suf- 
fers. The Gnostics became indifferent to the social wants 
of their fellow men. They were the illumined, the spirit- 
ual, the saved. There was little impulse to regenerate 
society. The social tests of Christianity set up by Jesus 
(Luke 4. 18, 19; Matthew 25. 34-36) were not recognized 
by them. If the Docetic view that Jesus was not a real man 
but a mere appearance, in which the heavenly Christ dwelt, 
possessed socially ethical power, it would have prevailed. 
It failed because it was divorced from the real needs of 
life. 

The Task of Kingdom Prophets. — Apostasy was checked 
in the reign of Domitian by a glowing vision of the destruc- 
tion of Eome and the supernal delights of Christ's king- 
dom. This prophet was mistaken in details. The empire 
was not overturned according to his expectations. The 
Messianic kingdom was not set up according to his pro- 
gram. It never will be inaugurated and conducted by his 
specifications. But the principle by which he steadied the 
faith of the trembling church is eternal. The blessings of 

163 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

the kingdom of God are incomparable with the splendors 
offered by the kingdoms of the world. To see and feel this 
is the only surety of loyalty to Christ. This is the task ever 
of the prophets of the Kingdom: to present the superior 
blessedness of Christian life with God. 

Open Paths 

The Trials of the Road. — Even to earnest, sincere men 
choice is often a sore trial. Gnosticism was not wholly 
evil. Had it been it would not have captured such large 
parts of the church through four or five generations. 
Sincere Christians may have admitted the expediency of 
preserving life at the cost of burning incense before the 
statue of the emperor. At many a hard turning of life 
there is no clear index pointing the way toward the Celes- 
tial City. The road to heaven is not a walled-in highway. 
There are endless turnings from the main road to test the 
vision of the traveler. 

When the Kingdom of God Is Overdoctrinized It Is 
Defeated. — It is neither the broadly liberal nor the in- 
tensely conservative theologian who advances Christ's king- 
dom. The citizen of the Kingdom has a creed; but it is 
a creed that does not thrust itself in front of the social, 
moral, and devotional needs of life. The Christianity that 
triumphs ever must stress life's daily needs of moral 
strength, social sympathy, and spiritual exaltation. This 
is an intensely practical experience, and the religion that 
devotes itself to speculation loses its right to command 
the world. 

The Development of Belief. — There was a development 
in the church's beliefs concerning Jesus, because there was 
a continually increasing richness in Christian experience of 
life in fellowship with Jesus. It was Paul's consciousness 
that Christ dwelt within him which was the ground of his 
conviction that Jesus was divine, and Christ preexistent. 
Every Christian should have a developing Christology. 
Our religious experience of Christ should enlarge and en- 
rich our conceptions of the person of Christ. When we 
see the far-reaching implications of his ideals: their spir- 

164 



TEIALS AND TRIUMPHS 

itual compulsion toward missions to pagan lands, their 
insistence upon social justice and righteousness, their eter- 
nal questioning of social and political institutions, their 
power to create peace in troubled souls, surely our thought 
of the person of Jesus broadens and magnifies to the meas- 
ure of our religious dreams. 

Everything New and Different Is Not Heresy. — Every 
experiment to understand God better does not end in a 
blind alley. Do not condemn views contrary to what you 
have held simply because you have not been so taught. 
Orthodoxy has done as much harm as heresy. It is not 
necessarily a mark of saintliness to follow old paths. Con- 
servatism badgered Amos into silence, imprisoned Jere- 
miah, stoned Stephen, beheaded James, crucified Jesus. 
Orthodoxy hanged Savonarola, burned John Huss, sent 
Knox to the galleys, drove Wesley into the streets and 
fields to preach the gospel of love. There may be yet 
untrodden paths toward the land of truth. The test of 
Christian truth is its leading toward spiritual and moral 
living. Do not cherish a road because it is familiar ; cling 
to it only if it is leading you morally nearer your fellow 
men and God. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What development did the beliefs of the early church 
undergo? 

2. What did heresy mean to the early church? What 
heresies had to be met? 

3. Why did the battle for correct thinking center about 
the person of Jesus? 

4. What were the chief characteristics of Gnosticism? 
Docetism? 

5. State the forces that finally overcame the Gnostic sect. 

6. What inducements tempted first century Christians to 
abandon their Christian life? 

7. Discuss emperor worship and its influence upon early 
Christianity. 

8. What effect would the book of Revelation have had upon 
you in the first century? 

9. State the reasons for its being misunderstood so often. 

10. What new light does a study of contemporary times 
throw on the book of Revelation? 

165 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

11. State the elements of their faith which made the early 
Christians victorious. 

Reading References 

The Church of the Apostles, Ragg, pages 299-312. 

The Church of the Fathers, Pullan, pages 44-56. 

The Apostolic Age, McGiffert, pages 502-05. 

The Beginnings of Christianity, Wernle, Volume II, pages 
170-242. 

Article "Gnosticism" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic 
Church, Hastings. 

Letters to the Seven Churches, Ramsay, Chapters IX and X. 



166 



CHAPTEK XIII 

KINGDOM MOVEMENTS OF THE APOSTOLIC AGE 

The spread of Christianity during the period repre- 
sented by the New-Testament writings was a religious, 
ethical, and economic movement of amazing proportions. 
Its triumphs were due not only to its own transforming 
spirit but also to certain religious and political conditions 
in the Greek and Roman world which created for Chris- 
tianity a remarkably free opportunity for its missionary 
activities. This chapter presents some of these favoring 
circumstances and also summarizes those elements in Chris- 
tianity which made it a new triumph in the developing 
kingdom of God. 

Judaism's Contkibution to the Kingdom of God 

The Jewish Dispersion. — There is abundant evidence of 
the wide dispersion of Jews throughout the Eoman world 
of the first century. Jewish communities were found every- 
where. Jews of many countries assembled at Jerusalem at 
the great festivals (Acts 2. 9-11). It will be recalled 
that Paul met his countrymen in every place in Asia Minor 
and Macedonia. From the time of Pompey, 63 B. c v they 
lived in large numbers in Rome. Many Roman regulations 
were set aside or construed to their advantage. They were 
excused from military service, they did not need to conform 
to the worship of the emperor, they were not summoned 
before a court on the Sabbath, and all civil suits among 
themselves were disposed of in their own courts. This free 
exercise of their religion was secured to them by imperial 
order. The Jews set up everywhere synagogues and schools. 
Wherever ten Jews or more were living, there would a 
synagogue be found. Not only were these powerful agencies 
in themselves making for a kingdom of righteousness, but 

167 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

the synagogue was the starting point of Christianity in 
nearly every city. It was the center also of a widespread 
and continuously pursued missionary effort to win pros- 
elytes to Judaism. Despite the general dislike of the 
Jew felt by Greek and Eoman, large numbers of them 
were attracted to the monotheism, the morals, and the Mes- 
sianic hope of their faith. These proselytes differed largely 
in the extent to which they conformed to Jewish customs, 
but simple observances, such as the Sabbath, were common 
among multiplied thousands of non-Jewish people in the 
apostolic age. 

The Jewish Dispersion a Preparation for Christianity. — 
The preparation for Christianity made by this widely 
spread dispersion of Jews is evident. The early Christians 
themselves were Jews. Their first places of assembly were 
the synagogues. In some cases, in small communities, 
the whole Jewish population accepted the new Christian 
beliefs. Christians, being taken for Jews by the Eoman 
authorities, were allowed the right of assembly, proselytism, 
and the administration of their common fund. Jewish 
missions had familiarized Gentile communities with the 
Old-Testament Scriptures, a monotheistic religion, rich 
moral ideals, and the Messianic salvation. Christianity 
was regarded alike by proselyte and public official as 
a Jewish missionary propaganda with but slightly different 
message and method. The missionary activity of Judaism 
in the first century, had it not been overshadowed by Chris- 
tianity, would have stood forth one of the great Kingdom 
movements of the Jewish people, if not the greatest. 

Greek Language and Thought Aid the Spread of Chris- 
tianity : Greek Language. — During the first Christian cen- 
tury Greek thought and language swayed a world almost 
as large as that which acknowledged the rule of Eome. The 
conquests of Alexander and his successors had scattered 
Greek colonists throughout almost the whole of the Nile 
valley and eastward almost to the borders of India. There 
were hundreds of cities in these lands to which Greek 
residents had given their language, government, charac- 
teristic public buildings, customs, and manners. Although 

168 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

the stricter Jews combated this advance of Greek life, 
Palestine was largely Hellenized. There were many Greek 
towns in Jewish territory. Herod the Great reestablished 
the Greek theater and amphitheater at Jerusalem. The 
Sadducean party, the Wisdom literature of the Old Testa- 
ment, and the Septuagint translation of the Jewish Scrip- 
tures are evidences of Greek influence upon Judaism. The 
Soman conquest of the East and the consequent political 
unity of the Mediterranean world gave free opportunity 
for the spread of Hellenism in the West. Merchants, 
slaves, Italian students in Greece, discharged soldiers, trav- 
eling physicians, and teachers introduced Greek language 
and ideas into Italy. At the time Paul was in Eome, Greek 
painting and sculpture were the style; Greek slaves were 
employed as cooks, valets, teachers, and physicians in the 
fashionable houses. Greek books took precedence in Eoman 
libraries. Cicero boasted that Greek philosophy had been 
mastered by him and turned into elegant Latin. Some 
of the highest Eoman dignitaries affected Greek dress. 
Noble Eoman youths were sent to Athens to be educated. 
Epictetus delivered his discourses, and Marcus Aurelius 
wrote his confessions in Greek. It was not until the 
fourth century that Eome again became a Latin city. 
Greek was the one universal language of the apostolic 
age. The vast majority of Jews scattered from Mesopo- 
tamia to Spain read their Old Testament in Greek. Greek 
was the language of the synagogue. The New-Testament 
writers, quoting from the Old Testament, used the Greek 
version. The whole of the New Testament was written in 
Greek. Jesus undoubtedly spoke Greek as well as his 
native Aramaic. Matthew would have had to know Greek 
to perform the duties of the customs office at Capernaum. 
It was the language of Peter and Paul in their public dis- 
courses. Greek was the one language of early Christianity. 
It was the exclusive vehicle of the new religion. Such 
words as "hymn," "psalm," "liturgy," "homily," "cate- 
chism," "baptism," "eucharist," "epistle," "cemetery," 
"evangelist," "deacon," "presbyter," "bishop," and "pope," 
all of Greek origin and of early use in the church, reveal 

169 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

the indebtedness of Christianity to the language of ancient 
Greece. 

Greek Thought. — It was impossible to speak and write 
Greek without being influenced by Greek morals and 
thought. Much attention was paid in the study of Greek 
to the classical Greek writers. Greek colonists in remote 
sections of the empire knew the Iliad by heart. Greek 
religious and philosophical ideas were almost as widely 
known as the Greek language. Some of the outstanding 
Greek religious ideas that served as highways for the Chris- 
tian message were (1) the conception of God as a far-off 
Being, whose activities in the world are mediated by a 
series of subordinate beings; (2) the belief that the world 
is evil, is a blunder, the creation of some lower divinity 
than the supreme Being; (3) the conviction that man is 
essentially a spirit and that he is imprisoned in this evil 
world; and (4) the assurance of redemption for man, who 
must rise through true knowledge into life with God. The 
various mysteries as well as the schools of philosophy gave 
expression to these ideas. While in many details they were 
alien to the Christian message, in general outline they fur- 
nished a sympathetic audience for the Christian apostle 
and teacher wherever the Greek language was known. This 
Greek social and intellectual outlook is reflected in New- 
Testament references to athletic contests (Philippians 3. 
12-14; Hebrews 12. 1; 1 Corinthians 9. 26); in Paul's 
familiarity with Greek poetry and Stoic philosophy (Acts 
17. 22-28) ; and in his use of the word "mystery." Paul 
speaks over and over again to the Christians at Ephesus, 
Colossse, Corinth, and Rome, of the mystery of the faith, 
the mysteries of God, the mystery of Christ, the mystery 
of the church, and the mystery hidden for ages. He was 
talking to Greek-speaking Christians, who knew by hear- 
say — and some of them by initiation — of the great mys- 
teries celebrated annually at Eleusis. The details of these 
Eleusinian mysteries, guarded by the most solemn oaths, 
are now lost beyond recall; but the doctrines taught in 
them, by means of a fascinating ritual, inculcated faith in 
the gods, deepened the hope of immortality, purified their 

170 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

lives, and made them better citizens. It was to a world 
taught, by these secret and sacred rites of Eleusis, that 
religion at its highest is a mystical contact with Deity that 
the Christian message came with its proclamation of a 
mystery hidden for ages in God, but now revealed in Christ. 
It was in the assurance that here, in the Christ and in 
one's soul, and not there, in the dark initiatory hall of the 
Eleusinian temple, the vision of the eternal verities was to 
be had which proved the attractive contact of Christianity 
with the soberer Greek mind. 

Christianity Assisted by Roman Life 

Roman Protection of Travelers. — The Eoman govern- 
ment made travel everywhere safe and provided the means 
of communication between the distant provinces of the 
empire. Travel was extraordinarily easy and common. 
One hundred miles a day by carriage over the great im- 
perial highways might be made. Single travelers rode 
muleback or walked long distances without fear of robbers. 
Merchants carried their goods in safety to the ends of the 
empire. There was recorded on the tomb of a merchant of 
Phrygia in Asia Minor that he had made seventy-two 
journeys to Rome. Travel was almost a passion in the first 
Christian century. To wander through Greece and to sail 
up the Nile were part of a liberal culture. The roads were 
filled with soldiers, embassies, merchants, traveling teach- 
ers and physicians, tourists, invalids in search of health, 
and officials of Rome going to and from their posts. In 
the midst of these moving multitudes Christian mission- 
aries traveled with safety and without attracting to them- 
selves harmful notice. 

Roman Law and Religion. — In the earliest days Roman 
courts secured the missionary against the fanaticism of 
the Jew and the insolence of Gentile mobs. PauFs Roman 
citizenship often was his protection. It was not until the 
reigns of Nero and Domitian that the Christians ceased 
to seek freely the protection of Roman officials. The laws 
that authorized the Roman guilds protected also many 
of the churches. These guilds ministered to the social, 

171 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

economic, and religious needs of their members. No doubt 
in many communities the churches were considered another 
form of the familiar guild. Two aspects of Roman reli- 
gious life favored the spread of Christianity. As long as 
the state religion was recognized, Roman authorities were 
tolerant of other beliefs and practices. During the first 
and second centuries A. d. several religions of Asia and 
Egypt made their way into Italy and the farther West. 
Since these new religions, with the exception of Chris- 
tianity, made no attack upon the state religion, it was 
easier for Christianity, being one of several missionary 
faiths, to escape condemnation than if it alone had sought 
to gain a footing in the Roman world. Then, too, these 
Oriental religions — the worship of Cybele and Attis, of 
Isis and Serapis — were redemptive religions. Crude and 
insufficient as they were, their popularity was due to their 
promise of uniting the worshiper with his gods. The long- 
ing for redemption which Christianity supplied was thus 
quickened by the pagan cults it supplanted. Early Chris- 
tianity in Rome was not confined to the humble classes. 
In a. d. 95 some members of the imperial family who had 
become Christians were condemned to death by Domitian. 
Among them were Clemens and Domitilla, who was a niece 
of the emperor. At the same time Glabrio, an ex-consul 
and a Christian, suffered martyrdom. There were many 
relatives of the emperors Vespasian and Domitian who 
became Christians. Among the early Christians were to be 
found members of the flower of the Roman nobility — sev- 
eral Cornelli, Csecillii, and iEmillii — men who were mag- 
istrates, generals, consuls, senators, and governors of prov- 
inces. 1 The decay of the old Latin religion in the upper 
classes accounts for this favorable attitude toward Chris- 
tianity on the part of many high-minded Roman men and 
women. Seneca, the tutor and minister of Nero, had 
broken absolutely with paganism. He was deeply religious, 
and many of his writings need little change to place them 
in accord with the most strict Christian teachers. It would 



1 Pagan and Christian Rome, Lanciani, Chapter I. 

172 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

have been easy for Seneca to become a Christian. Un- 
doubtedly his writings were highly regarded by earnest 
Eomans of the first and second centuries. He was a torch- 
bearer of the Christ. 

The Christian Contribution 

Jesus. — Christianity's supreme contribution to the world 
is Jesus himself. Although brought up in a Jewish home 
and nurtured upon Jewish religious ideas, Jesus so mar- 
velously lived beyond his kinsmen that he rightfully is 
everywhere regarded as the Beginner of a new age. His 
moral and social ideals expressed in his daily attitude to 
men and in his teaching to the group of disciples whom he 
associated with himself; his life of trust and obedience 
toward God ; his resurrection, which sealed his life as God's 
highest revelation of his ethical will, — all these have made 
Jesus the first Christian. Both in time and in character 
he is the Head of the vast community that takes his name. 
Christianity gave Jesus, the source and embodiment of our 
one universal religion, to the world of Jew, Greek, and 
Eoman, who, each in his own way, had made the necessary 
preparation for his coming. 

Christ. — To the vast multitudes of Jews scattered 
throughout the world the message of the Messiahship would 
arouse vast doubt, disbelief, scorn, and antagonism, or else 
it would thrill them with wonder, hope, and joy. To believe 
that this crucified Jesus was Jehovah's Christ would create 
in every Jewish community the spiritual exaltation felt by 
the Jerusalem Christians in the first glad days of their 
confession of their Lord. It meant that hope was nearing 
its harvest time. It was the birth of a new spiritual age. 
From Jerusalem there ran a stream of wonder and doubt 
to the ends of the Jewish world. Everywhere the Christian 
missionary found an eager audience at the synagogue to 
hear at least his initial message. The Christian message 
to Jew and Gentile, in its insistence that Jesus is Christ, 
brought the dreamed golden age from the distant future, 
where the Jews placed it, and from the happy past, where 
the pagan located it, into the now and here. Hope bloomed, 

173 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

and despair rose from the grave. New meaning was given 
to struggle, to suffering, to humiliation, to the evil order 
of the world. The ethical significance of such Mes- 
siahship was not at first realized. The death of 
Jesus was something to be explained away. It had no 
place in the Messianic program. Yet such an event to the 
reflecting church had to yield meaning. It had some vital 
connection with the redemption from sin. It was not long 
until it was the soul of the gospel that "Christ died for 
our sins." The heroic martyrdom of Christ later became 
an ethical impulse to win fellowship with him through 
similar sufferings (Philippians 3. 10), and by the end of 
the apostolic age only the disciple who emulated his Lord 
might occupy the heavenly throne (Revelation 3. 21). To 
become perfect through struggle against evil was a pro- 
found ethical contribution to life made by the Christian 
preaching of the crucified Jesus as God's Messiah. 

Intimacy With God. — Peter declared on the day of Pen- 
tecost that a new age of God's dealings with men had been 
ushered in. Joel, in thinking of the Messianic age, declared 
one of its marks to be the evident presence of Jehovah in 
the midst of Israel (Joel 2. 27) ; and that this presence 
would be manifested in an extraordinarily heightened spir- 
itual sense such as the disciples experienced at Pentecost. 
The essence of this Pentecostal experience was a new, joy- 
ous, exalting sense of God's presence in the lives of those 
participating in it. This was an experience which was not 
granted the disciples by personal contact with Jesus. It 
could not have come to them apart from the wondering 
expectation of strange things to come from God, begotten 
in them by the revolution wrought in their lives by the 
resurrection of Jesus. The conviction that the risen 
Jesus was the Messiah was accompanied in the ear- 
liest Christians by a profound heightening of their spiritual 
natures, which in some cases expressed itself in ecstatic 
language but generally in a new confident tone, a disregard 
of outward goods, fearlessness in the face of persecution, 
joyousness in the face of death. 

Redemption. — Wherever Jewish or Greek thought con- 

174 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

trolled the apostolic age, there was a deep longing for 
redemption. The world pressed heavily, and no great hope 
lighted the distant paths of men. The Jew especially ex- 
pected this redemption in connection with the advent of 
the Messiah. The Messianic kingdom was to be inaugu- 
rated by Jehovah as a vindication of Israel and a judgment 
upon the Gentiles. It was the rule of God to be introduced 
from without into Israel, and not something which sprang 
up in the nation's life from within. Greek thought 
regarded the world as evil, and man could be saved only by 
being rescued from it. In all the Greek centers of popu- 
lation, such as Antioch, Ephesus, Smyrna, as well as the 
cities of Greece, there were numerous associations of men 
and women bound together in secret societies, who were 
seeking, through mysterious religious ceremonies, to re- 
deem themselves from a perishing world. All these rites, 
like those celebrated at Eleusis, sought to unite the initiate 
with deity. Even the pagan seekers after truth realized 
that in such fellowship alone was to be found salvation. 
The Christian gospel proclaimed the advent of the Mes- 
sianic age, in which the evils of life were surmounted by the 
splendors of a new heaven and a new earth. But salva- 
tion was not altogether delayed until Christ returned. In 
the meantime there was offered to individuals even a 
fuller redemption than that which was sought in the Greek 
mysteries. The living fellowship of the individual with 
Christ gave such a buoyant sense of life and safety that this 
experience explains the rapid spread of Christianity among 
the Greek-speaking people of the world. Men were re- 
deemed not only from harsh social ills and the fear of 
death but also from the slavery of sins which made 
life wretched. No message so full of redemption ever has 
been elsewhere offered the world. 

The Church. — The church as an organization for teach- 
ing and fellowship undoubtedly was an ethically social fac- 
tor of great magnitude in the first century of our era. 
These Christian societies bore enough resemblance to the 
trade and religious guilds to make them seem natural to 
Gentile converts and to enable them to escape conflict with 

175 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOEMEES 

the authorities; but their religious aims and experiences 
set them apart from all other societies of the age in ethical 
achievement. The church, in its services and through 
its officers, was the essential vehicle through which the 
Christian message in its fuller details reached the com- 
munity. No permanent successes in the development of 
God's kingdom could have been possible apart from church 
life. Just as the Jews of the dispersion found the syna- 
gogue a necessity, so did the Christians realize that only 
through the frequent assembly of themselves together could 
the glorious fellowship with Christ be conserved. An iso- 
lated Christian cannot long keep his experience. 

Christian Literature. — Eising Christianity was compelled 
to produce a Christian literature. We have seen, in Chap- 
ter X, the various situations out of which our New-Testa- 
ment writings came into being. In every case the Epistle 
or the Gospel was written to fill some need of the growing 
church. These books sprang up out of the life of the 
church and, because they are an expression of the Chris- 
tian spirit at work to supply some human need, they bear 
their message to every age. These Christian writings were 
an exceedingly important contribution to the developing 
Kingdom. Like the church meetings and officials, they 
became the vehicle through which the Christian message 
reached wider circles than the missionaries themselves could 
touch. Like the church, too, they remain for succeeding 
ages an extraordinarily valuable exhibit of the life-giving 
spirit of nascent Christianity. 

Christian Leaders. — The church of the first century gave 
the world some exceedingly fine leaders of the higher life. 
Who can measure the unending influence upon the world 
of Peter, Stephen, Philip, Barnabas, Mark, Silas, Timothy, 
Epaphras, Titus, Luke, Paul, and John ? These men con- 
tinually hazarded their lives for Christ. They lived in 
glorious fellowship with Christ. They traversed the world 
of their day to proclaim their Christ. They were the in- 
spiration of multiplied thousands of their fellow men. 
Their courage, their devotion, their sacrifices, their faith, 
and their spiritual joys gave glowing illustration of the 

176 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

Christian faith. The Kingdom had come and was coming 
in them, and men who knew them understood what spirit 
and manner of life God wanted his children to win. 

Summaiiy : The Coming Kingdom 

Principles of the Highest Civilization Uttered. — The 

preceding chapters have sketched the chief religious move- 
ments of the latter two thirds of the first century of our 
era. No more striking or permanent achievements in the 
realm of character ever have been produced at any other 
period of the world's life. The leaders of Christianity in 
the apostolic age could not have believed else than that 
they stood at the dawn of God's kingdom. There were 
indeed vast areas of first-century life which the Christian 
movement did not touch, but the work was so marvelous 
that Christian hearts everywhere beat high with Messianic 
hope. The principles of the highest civilization were ut- 
tered then and given their first application to every condi- 
tion of life. Succeeding centuries have done no more than 
to apply these Christian convictions with fuller detail to 
the social order. 

Something New in the World. — The close of the first 
century saw something really new in the world. There 
were societies of men and women in hundreds of com- 
munities far and wide, of different views of life, modes of 
occupation, and social standing, who were separated from 
the world about them by a new manner of life. Out- 
wardly this new life was a radiation of love and righteous- 
ness. Paul's hymn of love (1 Corinthians 13) expresses 
the new social spirit. A fraternalism that united without 
friction bond and free, male and female, rich and poor, Jew 
and Gentile, was a noteworthy social achievement which 
commands the admiration of the world. These associations 
were dominated too by the highest ethical ideals. They 
were bound by an insistent demand for righteousness. The 
Christian spirit banned the common vices of the pagan 
world: "Fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, 
sorcery, enmities, strife, jealousies, wraths, factions, divi- 
sions, parties, envying, drunkenness, revelings, and such 

177 



APOSTLES, FATHEBS, AND EEFOEMEES 

like ; of which I tell you plainly, as I did tell you plainly, 
that they who practice such things shall not inherit the 
kingdom of God" (Galatians 5. 19-21). This ideal was not 
reached everywhere : perhaps fully reached nowhere. That 
this was the ideal of hundreds of societies from the Jordan 
to the Tiber is a social fact of extraordinary importance. 
A Consciousness of the Universal Church. — These scat- 
tered societies were given additional importance by an- 
other unusual social fact. There was a strong sense of 
common interest uniting them into a great fraternity. This 
bond was greater than race antagonism, social inequalities, 
industrial occupations, and family ties. The members of 
one small group, in recalling that hundreds of other 
churches were vexed by their problems and enheartened by 
their triumphs, did not feel so keenly their break with their 
former life. The tension of their spiritual powers was 
heightened by their consciousness of the universal church. 

The Fullness of Time 

"When the Fullness of the Time Came, God Sent Forth 
His Son." — Such was the explanation of the religious move- 
ments of the apostolic church by its clearest, most heroic 
thinker. How little thinkers know of the intimate causes 
of the greatest historical events ! But Paul knew that there 
were no sufficient proximate causes of Christ and the 
Apostolic Church. When God was ready, the forward move- 
ment was inaugurated. This is Paul's philosophy of the 
stupendous movements of which he was the foremost leader. 
But there is a fullness of time, .a chosen moment, for 
the minute details of life. We cannot rule out the divine 
direction of our lives. Eunning through all our wise and 
foolish choices there is a higher purpose, which never is 
ultimately thwarted and, when the time is full, speaks out 
its eternal will. Let me do my worst, and in God's own 
time all my evil becomes overruled; all the passion of my 
selfishness becomes a vanished value. Let me do my best, 
and lo ! at an unexpected hour God garners it with his eter- 
nal harvest. God's clock regulates our lives. 

Be Sure of God's Will. — Let us keep this conviction that 

178 



KINGDOM MOVEMENTS 

God chooses the hour for brighter dawns in the world's 
life, and we will become his agents in many a successful 
enterprise. Is a church building to be erected? A man 
to be won into the body of Christ's disciples? A more 
righteous adjustment of industrial conditions to be made ? 
A business partnership to be formed or rejected? A resi- 
dence in a distant city to be considered? A choice of 
political candidates to be decided ? A missionary call to be 
weighed ? There is but one certain way to escape the wrong 
path. We must be sure of God's will. With that knowl- 
edge it is impossible to fail. Does it not seem to you that 
the fullness of the time has come for certain great move- 
ments to be consummated ? Need war ever again turn our 
earth into a hell? Can industry be else than a mingled 
curse and blessing as long as it is on a competitive and cap- 
italistic basis? Is Christianity or commercialism to cap- 
ture the civilization of China and Africa? How many 
more centuries before these problems are to be solved? 
What reasons are there for supposing that these questions 
are now at the decision hour ? 

Suggestions tor Class Discussion 

1. In what way did the Jews prepare the way and help to 
advance the evangel of the Christ? 

2. What position did the Jews of the apostolic age hold 
socially? economically? politically? 

3. Discuss the influence in pagan communities of the Jew- 
ish synagogue and school. 

4. How did these activities help to propagate the Christian 
message? 

5. Discuss the place and influence of Greek thought and 
language in the first century. 

6. State the significance of four outstanding Greek religious 
ideas that served as highways for the Christian message. 

7. What contributions to the progress of the Kingdom did 
Rome make during these years? 

8. What supreme contribution to the world did early Chris- 
tianity make? 

9. What to the early church did the name "Jesus" mean? 
"Christ"? Intimacy with God? Redemption? 

10. Discuss the significance of the Christian gospel as a 
message of redemption. 

179 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND EEFOEMEES 

11. State the value to the advancing Kingdom of the early 
church; Christian literature; Christian leaders. 

12. What principles of the highest civilization were put into 
practice by apostolic Christianity? 

13. Discuss the value to society of the new fraternalism 
inaugurated by followers of the Christ. 

14. To what extent did the thought of a universal church 
encourage and strengthen local Christian communities? 

15. Discuss the power of the socially regenerative influ- 
ences of Christianity. 

Reading References 

The Environment of Ewrly Christianity, Angus, pages 164- 
221. 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume I, pages 1-35. 

The Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire, Ma- 
haffy, pages 93-149. 

The Letters to the Seven Churches, Ramsay, pages 1-56. 

Article "Mystery" in A Dictionary of the Apostolic Age, 
Hastings. 



180 



CHAPTER XIV 

CHRISTIANITY'S APPEAL FOR WORLD TOLER- 
ANCE 

It has been shown that at the close of the first 
century a. d. Christianity was widely established in 
the Greco-Roman world and that it had aroused against 
itself the political power, the industrial life, and the social 
institutions of the pagan world. These antagonisms were 
accentuated in the second century. In addition to these 
forms of opposition there were literary attacks upon the 
new religion, and Christian leaders sought to meet these 
criticisms by presenting Christianity in ways designed to 
win not only the tolerance but also the acceptance of the 
gospel by Greek and Roman educated classes. Christianity, 
through a series of brilliant writers, appealed to the intellec- 
tual and political authorities of the day for its right to live 
unhampered within the civil polity and social activities of 
the age. 

The Apologists 

A Literary Defense of Christianity. — Those writers who 
set themselves to the defense of Christianity are called 
apologists. Many of their writings are no longer extant. 
The earliest of these works now existent is the apology of 
Aristides, which probably was presented to the emperor 
Hadrian in the early part of the second century. Justin, a 
native of the ancient Shechem, in Samaria, though a Gen- 
tile, about a. d. 50 addressed an apology to the emperor 
Antoninus Pius. Tatian, a pupil of Justin, wrote volu- 
minously; but only one of his books, Apology to the Greeks, 
survives. Athenagoras, who called himself "The Assyrian," 
addressed his Plea for the Christians to the philosopher- 
emperor Marcus Aurelius. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch 

181 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOEMEES 

at about the same time, a. d. 180, wrote three treatises, To 
Autolycus. The Epistle to Diognetus, whose author is un- 
known, also belongs to the last half of the second century. 
These were all written in Greek. Minucius Felix, a Eoman 
Christian lawyer, wrote his Octavius in Latin at the close 
of the second or the opening of the third century. The 
very abundance of these writers testifies to the bitterness 
of the antagonism of paganism and the service they ren- 
dered to the kingdom of God. 

Popular Pagan Ideas of Christianity 

Minucius Felix States the Common Charges of the Gen- 
tile Populace Against the New Religion. — He makes his 
pagan Caecilius say to Octavius, a Christian : 

You gather together from the lowest dregs the more un- 
skilled, and women, credulous and, by the facility of their 
sex, yielding, establish a herd of profane conspiracy, which 
is leagued together by mighty meetings and solemn fasts 
and inhuman meats; a people skulking and shunning the 
light, silent in public, but garrulous in corners. They de- 
spise the temples as dead houses; they reject the gods; they 
laugh at sacred things; wretched, they pity, if they are 
allowed, the priests; half naked themselves, they despise 
honors and purple robes. 1 

Caecilius also repeats the common report of crimes prac- 
ticed in the secret meetings of the Christians : 

They know one another by secret marks and insignia and 
they love one another almost before they know one another; 
everywhere there is mingled among them a religious lust. 
They call one another promiscuously brothers and sisters, 
that even a not-unusual debauchery may, by the intervention 
of that sacred name, become incestuous. 2 

Caecilius objects to the Christian mode of worship : 

Why have they no altars, no temples, no acknowledged 
images? Whence or who is he or where is the one God, 
solitary, desolate, whom no free people, no kingdoms, and 
not even Roman superstition have known? The lonely and 
miserable nationality of the Jews worshiped one God; but 



iBook VIII, Chapter VIII. 
'Book VIII, Chapter IX. 

182 



APPEAL FOE WOULD TOLERANCE 

they worshiped him openly, with temples, with altars, with 
victims, and with ceremonies. But the Christians feign that 
he who is men's God, whom they neither can show nor behold, 
inquires diligently into the character of all; that he runs 
about everywhere. They make him out to be troublesome, 
restless, even shamelessly inquisitive, since he is present at 
everything that is done. 3 

The attack ends in a fling at the Christian expectation of 
the destruction of the world and the belief in the resurrec- 
tion of the body : 

It is a double evil and a twofold madness to denounce 
destruction to the heavens and the stars, which we leave just 
as we find them, and to promise eternity to ourselves, who 
are dead and extinct. 

Theophilus Reports the Conviction of Greek Thinkers 
that Christianity Is Without Philosophical Standing.— 

In his third tractate To Autolycus he summarizes the views 
of Christianity held by those who made pretense of learn- 
ing: 

Godless lips falsely accuse us who are worshipers of God 
and are called Christians that . . . our doctrine has but 
recently come to light; that we have nothing to allege in 
proof of what we receive as truth, nor of our teaching, but 
that our doctrine is foolishness. 4 

Justin Martyr Indicates the Unjust Attitude of the 
Government. — He points out the unjust hatred and wanton 
abuse of the Eoman administration of justice. To bear the 
name of Christian, apart from any proved evil action, is a 
crime : 

Those among yourselves who are accused, you do not pun- 
ish before they are convicted; but in our case you receive 
the name as proof against us. If any of the accused deny 
the name and say that he is not a Christian, you acquit him; 
but if anyone acknowledge that he is a Christian, you punish 
him. Justice requires that you inquire into the life both of 
him who confesses and of him who denies, that by his deeds 
it may be apparent which kind of man each is. 5 



3 Book VIII, Chapter X. 

* Chapter IV. 

6 First Apology, Chapter IV. 

183 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

The Defense of Christianity 

The False Charges Met by a Strong Literary Defense. — 

Many writers met these absurd, mistaken, and half-in- 
formed opinions of the pagan world with a voluminous, 
apologetic literary defense of the new religion. Their writ- 
ings are worthy the study of the modern Christian not only 
for a better understanding of the historical origin of Chris- 
tian theology but also for their literary charm and the 
thoughtful religious insight and devoutness of their au- 
thors' lives. 

The Charge of Disloyalty to the Government. — Justin 
Martyr strongly denies the charge of disloyalty to the state 
and obedience to the civil authorities : 

Everywhere we, more readily than all men, endeavor to 
pay to those appointed by you the taxes both ordinary and 
extraordinary, as we have been taught by Christ. To God 
alone we render worship but in other things we gladly serve 
you [the emperors], acknowledging you as kings and rulers 
of men. 8 

Athenagoras ends his Plea for the Christians, addressed to 
the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, as follows : 

Who are more deserving to obtain the things they ask than 
those who, like us, pray for your government, that you may, 
as is most equitable, receive the kingdom son from father, and 
that your empire may receive increase and addition, all men 
becoming subject to your sway? And this is also for your 
advantage — that we may lead a peaceable and quiet life and 
may ourselves readily perform all that is commanded of us. 7 

The Charge of Immorality. — This was the most popular, 
widely repeated, and readily believed charge against the 
Christians. The secret character of their meetings, the 
prevalent immorality of the pagan world, and the fact that 
pagan religion laid no moral demands upon its devotees 
made these unfounded accusations easily believable among 
the populace. 

(a) Theophilus. — After a discussion of the Ten Com- 



• First Apology, Chapter XVII. 
' Chapter XXXVII. 

184 



APPEAL FOE WORLD TOLERANCE 

mandments, humanity to strangers, repentance, righteous- 
ness, chastity, and love, Theophilus writes : 

Consider whether those who teach such things can possibly 
live indifferently and be commingled in unlawful intercourse 
or, most impious of all, eat human flesh. . . . Far be it 
from Christians to conceive any such deeds. For with them 
temperance dwells, monogamy is observed, chastity is guarded, 
iniquity exterminated, sin extirpated, righteousness exercised, 
law administered, worship performed, God acknowledged; 
truth governs, grace guards, peace screens men; the holy 
Word guides, wisdom teaches, life directs, God reigns. 8 

(b) Minucius Felix. — In his debate between Caecilius the 
pagan and Octavius the Christian, Minucius Felix places in 
the latter's reply to the charges advanced by Caecilius the 
following beautiful defense of Christian brotherhood : 

We maintain our modesty not in appearance, but in our 
heart we gladly abide by the bond of a single marriage. We 
practice sharing in banquets, which are not only modest but 
also sober; for we do not indulge in entertainments nor 
prolong our feasts with wine, but we temper our joyous- 
ness With gravity and with chaste discourse. We are assem- 
bled together with the same quietness with which we live as 
individuals. We do not distinguish our people by some small 
bodily mark, as you suppose, but easily enough by the sign 
of innocence and modesty. Thus we love one another, to 
your regret, with a mutual love because we do not know how 
to hate. We call one another, to your envy, brethren, as 
being men born of one God and parent, companions in faith 
and fellow heirs in hope. 

The Charge of Atheism. — (a) Theophilus meets the 
charge of atheism, by showing first, that the pagan world 
itself is without true faith in God; and, second, that the 
Christians are upheld by a pure and unfaltering confidence 
in him : 

(1) For after they [Greek historians, poets, and philoso- 
phers] had said that there are gods they again made them 
of no account, for some said that they were composed of 
atoms, and others, again, that they eventuate into atoms; 
and they say that the gods have no more power than men. 
Plato, though he says there are gods, would have them 
composed of matter. Pythagoras, after he had made such a 



s Book III, Chatper XV. 

185 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMERS 

toil and moil about the gods and traveled up and down for 
information, at last determines that all things are produced 
naturally and spontaneously, and that the gods care nothing 
for men. . . . (2) Now, we also confess that God exists 
but that he is one, the Creator, Maker, and Fashioner of this 
universe; and we know that all things are arranged by his 
providence. 9 

(b) Athenagoras follows the same line of argument. He 
calls attention to the Greek atheist, Diagoras, who "pub- 
lished the mysteries of Eleusis, chopped up the wooden 
statue of Hercules to boil his turnips, and openly declared 
there was no God at all." 

But to us, [he asks] who distinguish God from matter 
and teach that Deity is uncreated and eternal, to be held by 
as understanding and reason alone, is it not absurd to apply 
the name of atheism? If our sentiments were like those of 
Diagoras, with reason might our reputation for impiety, as 
well as the cause for our being thus harassed, be charged 
upon ourselves. But since our doctrine acknowledges one 
God, the Maker of this universe, we are both defamed and 
persecuted. 10 

The Charge of Novelty of the Christian Religion. — 

(a) Tatian met the charge that Christianity was a new, 
untried, presumptuous religion by identifying it in essence 
with the Old Testament and proving to his satisfaction that 
the Mosaic legislation was older than the most revered 
Greek philosophy. 

(b) Justin Martyr carried Christianity into far earlier 
times than the birth of Christ. He claimed that among 
other races, as well as among the Hebrews, Christ, long be- 
fore his appearance in Judea, was the indwelling spirit of 
all good men. He boldly claimed that the best in Greek 
philosophy is a borrowing from Christianity. 

The Attack Upon Paganism 

The Apologists All Attack Pagan Religion. — Each of the 
Christian writers takes a fling at the absurdities, immorali- 
ties, and the shallowness of pagan religious ideas. The 
idols in common use were made by men, the deities they 

a Book III, Chapters VII, IX. 
m Chapter IV. 

186 



APPEAL FOE WOELD TOLERANCE 

represent were originated by the poets, and the profligacy 
of the gods makes it impossible to venerate them. These 
foolish and immoral beliefs are the suggestions of evil 
demons. Such varied and contrary notions are held of the 
gods by their pagan worshipers that intelligent men are 
precluded from honoring such deities. 

Theophilus Points Out the Absurdities of Idolatry. — 
The absurdities of idolatry are thus set forth by 
Theophilus : 

In truth it does seem to me absurd that statuaries and 
carvers, painters, or molders should both design and paint, 
carve, and mold, and prepare gods who, when they are pro- 
duced by the artificers are reckoned of no value; but as soon 
as they are purchased and placed in some so-called temple 
or in some house, not only do those who brought them but 
also those who made and sold them come with much devo- 
tion and apparatus of sacrifice and libations to worship 
them. u 

Athenagoras Exposes the Weakness of Pagan Theology. 

— He calls attention to the fact that the statues of the 
gods are not deities; they have been made by men. The 
gods themselves are not eternal. Homer speaks of ■"Old 
Oceanus, the sire of the gods." Nonsensical and ridicu- 
lous forms are ascribed to the gods : they say Hercules is a 
god in the shape of a dragon coiled up. Detestable achieve- 
ments are ascribed to the gods : Kronos, for instance, mu- 
tilated his father and hurled him down from his chariot. 
The gods are guilty of impure loves : Venus is the mother 
of iEneas. It is said that these statements of the poets are 
symbols : that Zeus, for example, is fire, and Hera the earth. 
In such case the gods are nothing but aspects of nature. 
This reduces the whole pretended order of divine beings 
into nothingness. Paganism is shut up to atheism or to an 
immoral and unworshipful race of deities. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

The Cause of Persecution and Calumny. — As the church 
grew in numbers and in extent throughout the empire, the 

"Book II, Chapter II. 

187 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOKMEES 

Christians were subjected to persecution and calumny. 
Governors exercised their police powers largely according to 
their own disposition toward the new religion. It was easy 
for the unthinking, sensual-minded to distort the secret 
meetings, the common meals, the fraternal greetings, the 
severe appearance of morality, and the lack of temples and 
sacrifices into immoral practices and godless beliefs. To 
the Greek thinker Christianity was an upstart faith, with 
no philosophical standing and living in the credulity of the 
masses. 

The Apologists Pleaded for Justice in the Roman Courts. 
— These apologists insisted that a new religion did not make 
them wicked citizens and demanded that their trials should 
take cognizance of character, and not of ill-founded and 
unjust prejudices against a name. They denied disloyalty 
to the state. They indignantly repudiated the slanders of 
crimes and immoralities. They bared to the world the 
secrets of their services. "Our assemblies are not drunken 
orgies," says Justin Martyr, "but meetings for prayer, for 
baptism of novitiates, for participation in the Holy Com- 
munion, for thanksgivings and exhortations for holy liv- 
ing, for collection of alms for widows and orphans, for 
the sick and the impoverished and the stranger among us." 
It was a great dishonor and injustice for Eome to persecute 
and kill such noble-minded citizens. The apologists 
plead for justice, for the right of such a body of high- 
souled men and women within the social life of the state. 

The Apologists Also Sought to Meet the Slurs of Greek 
Philosophers. — This was done by presenting Christianity 
as a philosophy. All truth, according to the apologists, is 
revealed truth; hence, Christianity, which finds its out- 
lines in the predictions of the Old Testament, is the 
true and highest philosophy. It was no new thing forcing 
its way into the world ; no parvenu when Moses was a Chris- 
tian, and Plato plagiarized from Genesis. Whatever may 
be the permanent value of this argument, it undoubtedly 
met the needs of the second century. Christianity was 
pressing its way out of a barbarian people into the cultured 
Greek and Eoman world. It had to make good its intellec- 

188 



APPEAL FOR WORLD TOLERANCE 

tual rights to the deference of the pagan mind in order to 
win its heritage in that day. 

The Apologists' Greatest Success. — Perhaps the greatest 
advantage was won by the apologists for the Christians 
themselves. It was made clear to them that absolute purity 
of morals was necessary to win the confidence of the pagan 
world. Pagan criticism was conducive to Christian cir- 
cumspection of their own lives. Accusations made the 
Christian brotherhoods more compact and enriched the 
social consciousness for maligned followers of Christ. Then, 
too, they learned to feel the intellectual strength of their 
faith. Such experiences gave them a new sense of the se- 
curity of their beliefs and made them the more confident to 
propagate their religion. The church, in passing through 
the apologetic age, won a new confidence in itself, a more 
extensive theology, and new weapons for its glorious war- 
fare to conquer the world. 

Twentieth-Centuey Apologetics 

Learn to Appreciate the Intellectual Standing of Chris- 
tianity. — No learning can justly hurl sarcasms at the irra- 
tionality of the Christian scheme of life. It justifies itself 
at the bar of the highest intelligence. It is as reasonable 
as science. To become a follower of Jesus Christ is not to 
stultify the mind. Christ tremendously challenges the 
thought life of any age, and wherever men truly think, life 
will inevitably shape itself to the forms which were given 
it by Jesus. Faith has no quarrel with reason. "Come, 
now, let us reason together," is ever the invitation of Chris- 
tianity to the non-Christian world. Believe that no true 
thinking ever will weaken the foundations of your faith 
in Christ and God. 

Every Christian an Apologist. — It is the duty of every 
Christian to be an apologist. Christian apology is the earn- 
est and studied commendation of the ideals and life of Jesus 
Christ to the indifferent and doubting. It is your great 
privilege to give "a reason concerning the hope that is in 
you." No opportunity for happiness can ever compare 
with the passing on to other lives the secret of your own 

189 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

peace and joy. Remember that the kingdom of God will 
not come by the passing of laws but by the setting up of 
ideals. You can do much for your country by your ballot 
but you can do vastly more by your daily chances to com- 
mend the Christ you know to the spiritually poor among 
your acquaintances. 

The Apologetic of Christian Fraternalism. — The most 
powerful Christian apologetic is Christian fraternalism. 
Every vigorous and effective revival of Christian life has de- 
veloped within a quickened consciousness of brotherhood. 
Methodism, beginning as a students' club at Oxford College, 
speedily expressed its dominant spirit of philanthropic and 
evangelistic sympathies for the poor, the sick, and the sin- 
ful. Foreign missions began as an expression of the pro- 
foundest Christian feeling after universal brotherhood. 
Every true growth of fraternalism gives birth to evangelis- 
tic zeal and active social ministry. The beginning of all 
new and triumphant advances of Christianity will be condi- 
tioned by the range and intensity of our fellowship with our 
fellow men. 

Look for the Good in Men. — Justin Martyr saw Christ in 
Socrates. John saw the divine light shining in "every man 
coming into the world." To see the best in the worst of 
men is the basis of all social ministry, all missionary evan- 
gelism. If you count men utterly depraved, you have 
robbed yourself of your chief social power — sympathy and 
hope. Claim everything good for Jesus Christ. There is 
only one God, and "he left not himself without witness" in 
every creed, in every race, in every blind seeking after 
happiness. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Why did it seem necessary to produce a literary de- 
fense of Christianity in the second and third centuries? 

2. Why did the secret meetings of the Christians cause 
their motive to be misunderstood? 

3. What charges were made against them according to 
Minucius Felix? Theophilus? Justin Martyr? 

4. How was the charge of disloyalty to the government met? 
the charge of immorality? 

190 



APPEAL FOE WORLD TOLERANCE 

5. In what way did Theophilus and Athenagoras meet the 
charge of atheism? 

6. To what extent was Tatian correct in claiming the phil- 
osophy of Christianity to be older than Greek philosophy? 

7. What place did Justin Martyr claim for Christ in Gentile 
lands? 

8. Discuss the counter charges brought against paganism 
by the Christian writers. 

9. Discuss pagan idolatry and theology. Wherein were both 
weak? 

10. State the questions upon which the apologists made a 
firm stand for the rights of Christians. 

11. How were the slurs of the Greek philosophers met? 
With what success? 

12. What great benefits were conferred upon Christian 
thinking and life by the work of the apologists? 

Reading References 

The Church of the Fathers, Pullan, Chapter VI 

A History of the Study of Theology, Briggs, Volume I, pages 
70-81. 

The Church in the Roman Empire, Ramsay, Chapter XV. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume II, Chap- 
ter III. 

A Source Book for Ancient Church History, Ayer, pages 
69-75. 

The Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Volume II, pages 1-69, 
contains the first apology of Justin, addressed to the emperor 
Antoninus Pius. Pages 325-421 give A Plea for the Chris- 
tians, written by Athenagoras and addressed to the emperor 
Marcus Aurelius. 



191 



CHAPTER XV 

THE ETHICAL TASK OP CHRISTIANITY 

Christianity began with the unfaltering consciousness 
that religion and moral conduct are inseparable. It ad- 
vanced into a world where religion and morality were 
divorced. It was the unswerving insistence that religion 
required righteousness, justice, and purity in human life 
which embittered the antagonism of paganism toward 
Christianity. If Christianity was to keep its lofty char- 
acter it could not triumph in the pagan world until it had 
transformed the morals of paganism. Therefore, Christi- 
anity faced a heroic ethical task in order to win toler- 
ance and triumph. 

Moral Conditions in the Roman World 

Pagan Critics. — The nobler-minded pagans were pro- 
foundly aware that their civilization had fallen upon evil 
times in those decades in which Christianity was making 
its way into the towns and cities of the empire. 

(a) Tacitus (a. d. 55-117), who wrote a history of the 
reigns of Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and 
Domitian, gives a distressing picture of Roman conditions 
during these years from 69 to 96. It will be recalled that 
Hebrews and Revelation fall within this period: 

The subject now before me presents a series of great events 
and battles fierce and bloody; a portion of time big with 
intestine divisions and even the interests of peace deformed 
with cruelty and horror; the whole a tragic volume, display- 
ing in succession four princes put to death; three civil 
wars; with foreign enemies in great number. . . . We shall 
see Italy overwhelmed with calamities; new wounds inflicted, 
and the old, which time had closed, opened again and bleed- 
ing afresh; cities sacked by the enemy or swallowed up by 
earthquakes; Rome laid waste by fire; her ancient and most 
venerable temples smoking on the ground; the capitol wrapped 

192 



ETHICAL TASK OF CHRISTIANITY 

in flames by the hands of frantic citizens; the holy ceremo- 
nies of religion violated; adultery reigning without control; 
the adjacent islands filled with exiles; rocks and desert places 
stained with clandestine murder, and Rome itself a theater 
of horror; where nobility of descent and splendor of fortune 
marked men out for destruction ; where the vigor of mind that 
aimed at civil dignities and the modesty that declined them 
were offenses without distinction; where virtue was a crime 
that led to certain ruin; . . . where nothing was sacred, 
nothing safe from the hand of rapacity; where slaves were 
suborned or, by their own malevolence, were excited against 
their masters; where freedmen betrayed their patrons; and 
he who had lived without an enemy died by the treachery 
of a friend. 1 

(b) Suetonius, who lived in the first part of the second 
century, composed a history of the Caesars. Of Domitian 
he says: 

His cruelties were not only excessive but subtle and unex- 
pected. The day before he crucified a collector of his rents 
he sent for him into his bedchamber, made him sit down 
upon the bed by him, and sent him away well pleased and, 
so far as could be inferred from his treatment, in a state of 
perfect security. . . . The estates of the living and the 
dead were sequestered upon any accusation by whomsoever 
preferred. The unsupported allegation of any one person 
relative to a word or action construed to affect the dignity of 
the emperor was sufficient. Inheritances, to which he had 
not the slightest pretension, were confiscated if there was 
found so much as one person to say he had heard from the 
deceased when living "that he had made the emperor his 
heir." . . . Not to go into details, after he had made free 
with the wives of many men of distinction, he took Domitia 
Longina from her husband and married her. 2 

(c) Pliny (died A. D. 113), a man of letters, an inti- 
mate friend of the emperor Trajan, thus speaks of con- 
ditions in the latter part of the first century : 

I attended in my youth the senate, but a senate shrinking 
and speechless; where it was dangerous to utter one's opin- 
ion, and mean and pitiable to be silent. What pleasure was 
there in learning, or, indeed, what could be learned when the 
senate was convened either to do nothing whatever or to 
give their sanction to some consummate infamy? when they 



iThe History, Book I, Chapter II. 
^Chapters I, XI, XII. 

193 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFORMERS 

were assembled for cruel or ridiculous purposes, and when 
their deliberations were never serious though aften sad?* 

(d) Juvenal (a. d. 60-140), an eminent Eoman poet, 
keenly satirizes the evils of the early second. century: 

Luxury, more ruthless than war, broods over Rome and 
exacts vengeance for a conquered world. No guilt or deed of 
lust is wanting since Roman poverty has disappeared. Money, 
the nurse of debauchery, was the first that introduced foreign 
manners and enervating riches sopped the sinews of the age 
with foul luxury. For what cares Venus in her cups, who 
at midnight devours huge oysters, mixes unguents with neat 
Falernian foam, drains the largest drinking bowl? From 
her dizziness the roof seems to reel, and the table to rise 
up with lights doubled in number. So, then, and knowing 
all this, doubt, if you can, with what a snort of scorn Tullia 
snuffs up the air when she passes the ancient altar of 
chastity.* 

Then is he [that is, the average Roman householder] happy 
indeed whenever the torturer is summoned, and some poor 
wretch is branded with the glowing iron for stealing a couple 
of fowls. What doctrine does he preach to his son, who revels 
in the clank of chains, that feels a strange delight in branded 
slaves and the miserable slave dungeons? Do you expect 
that Larga's daughter will not turn out an adulteress, who 
could not possibly repeat her mother's lovers without taking 
breath at least thirty times? 5 

Christian Views of Pagan Morals. — After these views 
of the pagans themselves upon the wretched state of morals 
the statements of Christian writers concerning the degen- 
eracy of pagan society will not appear unjust: 

(a) Justin Martyr (about a. d. 150) reproaches pagan 
society with the crime of abandonment of infants, leaving 
them to perish, or, what is more likely, to be reared by 
procurers of lust : 

We see that almost all exposed children, not only the girls 
but also the boys, are brought up to prostitution. As the 
ancients are said to have reared herds of oxen, goats, sheep, 
and grazing horses, so now we see you rear children only 
for this shameful use; and for this pollution a multitude of 
females and those who commit unmentionable iniquities are 



•Book VIII, Letter 14. 
♦Condensed from Satire VI. 
Satire XIV. 

194 



ETHICAL TASK OF CHKISTIANITY 

found in every nation, and you receive the hire of these and 
duty and taxes from them, whom you ought to exterminate 
from your realm. There are some who prostitute even 
their own children, and some are openly mutilated for the 
purposes of sodomy. 8 

(6) Athenagoras (about a. d. 175) declares that the 
pagans reveled in the moral atrocities of which they ac- 
cuse the Christians : 

Those who have set up a market for fornication and estab- 
lished infamous resorts for the young for every kind of vile 
pleasure — males with males committing shocking abomina- 
tions — revile us for the very things they do themselves. These 
adulterers and paederists defame the eunuchs and the once 
married [that is, the Christians, who do not marry or, the 
marriage being dissolved by death, do not remarry] while 
they themselves live like fishes, gulping down whatever falls 
in their way. 7 

(c) Clement of Alexandria, a learned, liberal Chris- 
tian scholar, writing about a. d. 200, berates the luxury 
that has undermined morals. He likens the women of 
wealth in his city to Egyptian temples, splendidly adorned 
without but nothing worthy of respect within : 

Those women who wear gold, occupying themselves in 
curling their locks, anointing their cheeks, painting their 
eyes, dyeing their hair, and, practicing other pernicious acts 
of luxury to attract their infatuated lovers, imitate the Egyp- 
tians. But if one withdraw the veil of the temple — the head- 
dress, the dye, the gold, the paint, and the cosmetics — he 
will find that a fornicator and adulteress has occupied the 
shrine of the soul. Such women care little for keeping at 
home with their husbands; but, loosing their husbands' 
purse strings, they spend its supplies on their lusts. The 
day they spend on their toilet; in the evening this spurious 
beauty creeps out to candlelight as out of a hole. Drunken- 
ness and the dimness of the light aid what they have put on. 
As you might expect, they become lazy in housekeeping, sit- 
ting like painted things to be looked at. If the god of wealth 
is blind, are not these women, who are crazy about him, 
blind too? Having no limit to their lust, they push on to 
shamelessness. For the theater, pageants, many spectacles, 
strolling in the temples, and loitering in the streets that they 



6 First Apology, Chapter XXVII. 

7 A Plea for the Christians, Chapter XXIV. 

195 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND REFORMERS 

may be seen conspicuously by all, is necessary to them. As 
the brand shows the slave, so do gaudy colors the adulteress. 
These women are carried about over the temples, spending 
their time with fortune-tellers, begging priests, and disrepu- 
table old women, to the ruin of their nuptial bonds. Some 
men they keep; by others they are kept; and others are 
promised them by the diviners. They know that they are 
exchanging their purity for the foulest outrage, but they 
think what is the most shameful ruin a great stroke of 
business. 8 

(d) Tertullian (a. d. 150-230), who lived in Rome and 
in Carthage, makes references to the social evils against 
which Christianity pitted its faith and moral energy. 
(1) Cruel sports and punishments were practiced. Crim- 
inals, sentenced to die, were compelled to enact some violent 
death upon the stage : 

We have witnessed in a mutilated criminal your 
god Attis; a wretch burnt alive has personated Hercules. 
We have laughed at the sport of your midday games of the 
gods when Father Pluto drags away, hammer in hand, the 
remains of the gladiators; when Mercury, with his winged 
cap and heated wand, tests with his cautery whether the 
bodies were really lifeless or feigning death. 9 

(2) Infanticide and the exposure of infants were com- 
mon in this corrupt age : 

Although you are forbidden by the law to slay newborn 
infants, it so happens that no laws are evaded with more 
impunity or greater safety, with the deliberate knowledge 
of the public and the suffrages of this entire age. . . . You 
expose them to the cold and hunger and to wild beasts or 
else you get rid of them by drowning. 10 

(3) Tertullian also charges the Gentile world with the 
greatest perversion of the sexual passion: 

Most Gentile women, noble in extraction and wealthy 
in property, unite themselves indiscriminately with the ig- 
noble and the mean, sought out for themselves for luxurious 
or mutilated for licentious purposes. Some take up with 
their own freedmen and slaves, despising public opinion, pro- 



8 Condensed from The Instructor. 

9 To the Nations, Chapter X. 
*>Ib%d., Chapter XV. 

196 



ETHICAL TASK OP CHEISTIANITY 

vided they may have husbands from whom they fear no 
impediment to their own liberty. 11 

(4) Extravagance and luxury for Tertullian are the 
signs of Eoman decay: 

What has become of the laws repressing expensive and 
ostentatious ways of living? which forbade more than a 
hundred asses [$1.04] to be expended on a supper? which 
put down theaters as quickly as they arose to debauch the 
manners of the people? Suppers now have a hundred ses- 
tertia [$4,000] expended on them. . . . Now, women have 
every member of the body laden with gold; winebibbing is 
so common with them that the kiss 13 is never offered with 
their will; and as for divorce, they long for it as though it 
were the natural consequence of marriage. 18 

The Moral Triumph of Christianity 

Christianity Contributed to the Regeneration of So- 
ciety. — Pagan and Christian writers alike bear witness to 
the decay of the social order of Eoman civilization of the 
first and second centuries. It is a social fact of supreme im- 
portance that Christianity, making its way into the midst 
of these decadent generations, contributed so greatly to the 
regeneration of both the individual and the institutions of 
the Eoman world. 

Lucian Reflects the Cultured Greek-Roman View. — Lu- 
cian, a rhetorician and satirist of the latter part of the 
second century, in his Death of Peregrine, reflects the cul- 
tured Greek-Eoman view of Christianity prevalent in his 
day among those who doubted all religion. But in pre- 
senting Christianity in this way he bears unconscious tes- 
timony to those moral qualities which made Christianity 
a conquering religion. Lucian represents Peregrine as a 
knave who dupes the Christians : 

It was now that he came across the Christians in Pales- 
tine and picked up their queer creed. He pretty soon con- 
vinced them of his superiority. The end of it was that 
Peregrine was arrested and thrown into prison. He was now 

11 To His Wife, Chapter VIII. 

12 It was once the custom of Roman women to kiss their relatives, that any use 
of wine on their part might be detected. 

11 Apology, Chapter VI. 

197 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

a made man. Everything that could be done for him they 
most devoutly did. They thought of nothing else. Orphans 
and ancient widows might be seen hanging about the prison 
from break of day. Their officials bribed the jailers to let 
them sleep inside with him. Elegant dinners were conveyed 
in; their sacred writings were read. In some of the Asiatic 
cities the Christian communities put themselves to the ex- 
pense of sending deputations with offers of sympathy, assist- 
ance, and loyal advice. The activity of these people in deal- 
ing with any matter that affects their community is some- 
thing extraordinary; they spare no trouble, no expense. You 
see these misguided creatures start with the general convic- 
tion that they are immortal, which explains the contempt of 
death and voluntary self-devotion which is so common among 
them; and then it was impressed upon them by their original 
lawgiver that they are all brothers from the moment that they 
are converted, and deny the gods of Greece, and worship the 
crucified Sage, and live after his laws. All this they take 
quite on trust with the result that they despise all worldly 
goods alike, regarding them merely as common property. 
Now, an adroit, unscrupulous fellow, who has seen the world, 
has only to get among these simple souls, and his fortune is 
pretty soon made. 14 

Second- and Third-Century Christian Witnesses. — The 

witness of the Christians of the second and third centuries 
to the pure morals and their source in great religious faith 
is beautiful and abundant. 

(a) Aristides. — "Now, the Christians know and believe 
in God, from whom they have received those command- 
ments which they have engraved on their minds, which 
they keep in the hope and the expectation of the world to 
come. Because of this they do not commit adultery or 
fornication, they do not bear false witness, they do not deny 
a deposit nor covet what is not theirs. They honor father 
and mother. They do good to those who are their neigh- 
bors, and when they are judges they judge uprightly. They 
do good to their enemies. Their wives are pure as virgins, 
and their daughters modest. Their men abstain from all 
impurity in the hope of the recompense that is to come in 
another world. Their slaves they persuade to become 
Christians; and when they have become so, they call them 

14 Fowler's translation of the works of Luoian. 

198 



ETHICAL TASK OP CHEISTIANITY 

without distinction 'brethren/ They walk in all humility 
and kindness, and falsehood is not found among them. 
When one of their poor passes away from the world, and 
any of them sees him, then he provides for his burial ac- 
cording to his ability." 15 

(b) Justin Martyr. — "We who formerly delighted in 
fornication now embrace chastity alone; we who formerly 
used magical arts dedicate ourselves to the good and unbe- 
gotten God; we who valued above all things the acquisi- 
tion of wealth now bring what we have into a common 
stock and distribute to everyone in need. We who hated 
and destroyed one another, since the coming of Christ 
pray for our enemies and endeavor to persuade those who 
hate us unjustly to live conformably to the precepts of 
Christ." 16 _ 

(c) Tatian. — A pupil of Justin's, Tatian, states that it 
was the ethical content of Christianity which won him 
from paganism : "Having been admitted to the mysteries, 
having examined the religious rites performed by the effem- 
inate and the pathic, and having found among the Romans 
their Jupiter delighting in human gore and the blood of 
slaughtered men, retiring to myself I sought how I might 
be able to discover the truth. While I was giving my most 
earnest attention to the matter I happened to meet with 
certain barbaric writings, too old to be compared with the 
opinions of the Greeks, too divine to be compared with their 
errors ; and I was led to put faith in these by the excellent 
quality of the precepts and the declaration of the govern- 
ment of the universe as centered in one Being. My soul 
being taught of God, I discerned that these writings put 
an end to the slavery that is in the world, rescuing it from 
ten thousand tyrants." 17 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

Christianity's Task to Wrest the Empire from the Grasp 
of Greed and Lust. — It was an evil world that the Chris- 
is Chapter XV, abridged. 

16 Apology, Chapter XIV. 

17 Address to the Greeks, Chapter XXIX, abridged. 

199 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

tianity of the first centuries set out to conquer. There were, 
of course, noble Eoman families among the rich and the poor 
which did not succumb to the vices denounced by Juvenal 
or Tertullian. But the morals of the Eomans had declined ; 
and if society were not to end in a hideous orgy, some new 
regenerative life had to wrest the social institutions of the 
empire from the fatal grasp of greed and lust. This task 
fell preeminently to Christianity. It was a gigantic task, 
and apart from its divine power the saving of the social 
order would have been impossible. 

Early Greek and Roman Religion Furnished a Moral 
Basis for the State. — The oracle at Delphi was once the 
religious center of the Greek world. When states were in 
difficulty and disaster; when potent cities were troubled 
about public policies; when princes and kings were delib- 
erating peace and war ; when men lacked decision concern- 
ing marriage, a voyage, an investment, the care of lands 
and herds ; whenever anyone felt himself clouded by uncer- 
tainty or failure, he turned to the Delphian Apollo for 
light. For many centuries the guidance of his priests made 
for the moral stability of Greek society. Eoman religion 
did the same for the Imperial City. But Greek and Eoman 
religion, based on superstition and myth, lost its power 
with advancing knowledge of the world. With the loss of 
religious faith morals declined. Morality can sustain itself 
permanently only when shrouded in religion. It was the 
religious decadence of the empire which opened the way for 
moral ruin. 

Roman Immorality a Blight. — Luxury, worship of 
wealth, inordinate extravagance, crudest vulgarity, became 
possible to the few with the Eoman conquest of the world. 
With the decay of religion the temptations of the powerful 
to exploit the helpless were not curbed. Among the classes 
that did not toil there was vast disdain of the poor and 
contempt for labor. The work of the world was done by 
slaves; the freedmen, with exceptions, were parasites upon 
the state. Vast fortunes were accumulated only to be 
squandered. The love of wealth caused honesty, good will, 
justice between individuals and in the courts, almost to 

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ETHICAL TASK OF CHKISTIANITY 

vanish. Humanity was brutalized. Masters feared the 
slaves. The slaves were subjected to great cruelties. Pub- 
lic amusements were debauched by licentiousness and in- 
humanity. Society was effeminate. Sexual license cor- 
rupted all human relations. Marriage almost universally 
was expected to lead to divorce. The temples, public baths, 
theaters, and the public spectacles were places of assigna- 
tion. Abortion, infanticide, and abandonment of children 
to procurers indicated the depth of shame to which the 
family and the home had fallen. Carnal debasements of 
every conceivable sort cursed the Eoman world. 

The Saving Function of Christian Ethics. — Beside this 
darkness of Eoman debauchery Christian morality gleams 
with heavenly light. The Christian gospel always was 
presented as salvation from immoral living as well as sal- 
vation from the pressure of an unjust economic social 
order. "It was impressed upon them by their original 
lawgiver that they are all brothers," wrote Lucian. He 
recognized that this fundamental principle of Christianity 
forced a new attitude toward property. "They despise all 
worldly goods, regarding them merely as common prop- 
erty." It must be recognized that this more-or-less-realized 
economic fraternalism was a powerful factor in the spread 
of Christianity in these centuries. But this is only a 
profound expression of Christian ethics. It was the same 
feeling of fraternalism which purified the family life, 
introduced justice into the courts, abhorred the brutal 
amphitheater, and denounced the sensuality of the 
age. 

The Source and Stay of Christian Morality Is Religion. 
— It must not be overlooked that the source and stay of 
Christian morality was religion. Christ had come and gone 
and was to come again. "These misguided creatures start 
with the conviction that they are immortal" was for Lucian 
the final explanation of their lives. The future, with its 
searching judgment, with its rewards and punishments, 
was the basis of their ethical life. These beliefs were their 
inheritance from the generation which knew Jesus. His 
ethical teachings were given substance by his resurrection. 

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APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

The expectation of his coming to judgment was the power- 
ful motive of early Christianity's unique and conquering 
ethical life. 

The Crystal Cup of Hope 

Morality Ever Is the End of Eeligion. — Eeligion is not 
intended primarily to thrill us but to purify us from greed, 
lust, pride, and inhumanity. It is to make us ideal citi- 
zens in an ideal world. The kingdom of God is primarily 
a kingdom of brothers. Fellowship with God is revealed 
in promptings toward truth, duty, and human sympathy. 
There is among us a vast deal of ignorance, unright- 
eousness, and selfish shirking of obligations. Our civiliza- 
tion needs to be penetrated and controlled by a passion for 
truth, by a glad acceptance of duty, by pure and righteous 
individual conduct, by justice and freedom in our wider 
social relationships. God ever seeks the progress of a 
finer world order on earth. The coming kingdom for 
which Christ labored was a kingdom of pure and unselfish 
social living; it was an ideal society of just, sympathetic, 
and enlightened men and women mutually devoted to a 
common welfare and finding the inspiration of their lives 
in fellowship with God. 

What Characterizes Christianity ? — Unless religion 
voices these things it is not the religion of Christ. When 
God speaks to a man to-day, it is not only to draw him 
into the divine fellowship; it is also to make him a more 
dynamic person in the heroic task of reconstructing the 
social order. The hall mark of a divine prompting, now 
as in early Christianity, is the urging toward individual 
and community holiness. Whenever any social order per- 
mits the few to amass vast wealth to be used by the few, 
while the masses remain in economic dependence or toil 
in poverty, that civilization is marked with death-bringing 
disease. Prostitution and divorce alike are terrible social 
diseases. Their increase is a process of social death. A 
feminist movement away from the home and family offers 
no happy solving of woman's pressing problems. 

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ETHICAL TASK OF CHRISTIANITY 

Genuine Christianity Dignifies the Individual. — It fixes 
a man's value not by his race, ancestry, or wealth, but by 
his manhood: by the fact that he is a human unit in the 
social order. To speak with accents of sweetness and sun- 
shine, to live cheerfully, to show tenderness toward all 
frailty, to bear patiently with the ignorant, to keep the door 
to one's charity open toward the unfortunate, to breathe 
endless good will toward every creature, is to keep oneself 
very close to the whispering God. Just to be a good friend, 
a good neighbor, to be the unwearied lover of the loveless 
and the lowly, is to draw one's life from the heavenly 
Father. 

The Crystal Cup. — It was this crystal cup of life and 
hope which the conquering Christianity of the early centu- 
ries held up to the parched lips of the pagan world. They 
drank it and found life. It is this cup the world still needs. 
Live it in your love, urgent words, and faithful service 
to the faint and restless souls of your day. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What evil social conditions existed in the Roman world 
during the first and second centuries? 

2. How were these conditions looked upon by the pagan 
writer Tacitus? by Suetonius? by Pliny? by Juvenal? 

3. How did the Christian writers picture decadent pagan 
morals? 

4. What phases of this did Justin Martyr emphasize? 

5. How did Clement of Alexandria characterize the life 
of pagan women? 

6. State the four charges against pagan life made by Ter- 
tullian. 

7. What contribution did Christianity make to the regenera- 
tion of the individual and the institutions of the Roman 
world? 

8. Discuss Lucian's putting of the cultured Greek-Roman 
viewpoint. 

9. What was the appeal and power of Christianity socially 
during the second and third centuries, according to Aristides? 
Justin Martyr? Tatian? 

10. What religious basis did Greek and Roman thought fur- 
nish the Christian missionaries? 

11. Discuss the saving function of Christian ethics. 

12. What is the source and stay of Christian morality? 

203 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEBS 

Beading Eeferences 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume II, pages 
311-85. 

The Conflict of Christianity With Heathenism, Uhlhorn, 
pages 92-149. 

The Mission and Expansion of Christianity, Harnack, Vol- 
ume II, Chapters IV and V. 

Roman Society From Nero to Marcus Aurelius, Dill, pages 
1-286. 



204 



CHAPTEE XVI 

KINGDOM AND CEEED 

In the course of time the emphasis in Christian interests 
shifted from conduct to belief. The kingdom of God was 
defined in terms of doctrine, and loyalty to such doc- 
trines was the test of Christian excellence. These doc- 
trines, formulated by bishops and councils, did not sup- 
plant the demand for morality in the relationships of life 
but they did become the primary test of worthiness of mem- 
bership in the church. This chapter points out this change 
in Christian history, indicates its causes, and estimates 
the serviceableness of this new conception of Christianity. 

The Sermon on the Mount and the Nicene Creed 

The Sermon on the Mount. — The Sermon on the Mount 
once was a collection of the sayings of Jesus (see Chapter 
X). Matthew the apostle assembled these characteristic 
utterances of Jesus, and they were intended by him — and 
were so received by his generation — to express the heart of 
the religion proclaimed by Jesus. They were the principles, 
the gospel, of the kingdom of God. The citizen of the 
Kingdom is he who does the will of God. The citizen of the 
Kingdom is not impatient or angry with his fellow men 
(Matthew 5. 21-24) ; is not impure in thought (5. 27-32) ; 
is unrevengeful (5. 38-42) ; is filled with love toward all 
(5. 43-48) ; is no caviling censor of the conduct of others 
(7. 1-5). It is he who does by others as he wishes others 
to treat him; who ever seeks to dispel ill will, misunder- 
standing, and quarrels; who thinks helpfully of the poor, 
the hungry, the naked, the sick, and the prisoner (25. 34- 
36) ; it is this person, not he who cries out vehemently, 
"Lord, Lord," who enters God's kingdom. It is hunger 

205 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

for righteousness, purity of life, and meekness of mind and 
heart which bring men into fellowship with God. 

Religion With Jesus Was Ethics, not Metaphysics. — Re- 
ligion, in the thought and practice of Jesus, is fellowship 
expressed in pure, righteous, and loving conduct. Here 
are no metaphysics, but ethics; no philosophy of the uni- 
verse, but a rule of life; no speculations, but specific in- 
junctions for the ordering of one's business, family affairs, 
and other social intercourse. To accept these principles 
changes the moral content of one's life. Fruits of better 
conduct appear. The man becomes a better husband, a 
better father, a better neighbor, a better merchant, a better 
citizen. It is correct moral thinking, not speculative logic, 
which leads men into approved relations with God. 

The Nicene Creed. — The Council of Nicea, a. d. 325, 
among other acts adopted a creed that was believed by the 
three hundred and sixteen bishops who signed it to express 
faithfully the beliefs of the church from the days of the 
apostles. The Council of Constantinople, A. d. 381, reaf- 
firmed the Mcene Creed with slight changes : 

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of 
heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible: 
and in our Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, 
begotten of the Father before all worlds, that is of the sub- 
stance of the Father, Light of Light, very God of very God, 
begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father: by whom 
all things were made, both in heaven and earth: who for us 
men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was 
incarnate of the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was 
made man, was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, 
and suffered, and was buried, and on the third day he rose 
again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, 
and sittest at the right hand of the Father, and from thence 
he shall come again with glory to judge both the quick and the 
dead, whose kingdom shall have no end; and in the Holy 
Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the 
Father; who, with the Father and the Son together, is wor- 
shiped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets: in one holy 
Catholic and Apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism 
for the remission of sins: we look for the resurrection of 
the dead, and the life of the world to come. And those who 
say that there was a time when the Son of God was not, and 
before he was begotten he was not, or that he was of things 

206 



KINGDOM AND CEEED 

which are not, or that he was a different hypostasis or sub- 
stance, or pretend that he is effluent or changeable, these the 
Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes. 1 

With few modifications this creed continues to be the 
chief doctrinal statement of the Greek and the Eoman 
Catholic Churches. The church, as this and the following 
chapter will show, was identifying itself with the king- 
dom of God. To exclude from the church was to take 
away from the anathematized their citizenship in God's 
kingdom. Succeeding church councils also declared that 
loyalty to the Nicene rule of faith gave citizenship in the 
Kingdom; refusal to confess the creed expunged one's 
name from the roster of heaven. 

The Attitude of the Church. — The attitude of the church 
of this period appears in the action of the Council of Chal- 
cedon, a. d. 451 : "The Holy Ecumenical Synod defines that 
no one shall be suffered to bring forward a different faith 
[that is, from the Nicene Creed], nor to write, nor put 
together, nor to excogitate nor to teach it to others. Such 
as dare either to put together another faith or to bring 
forward or to teach or to deliver a different creed, if they 
be bishops or clerics, let them be deposed, the bishops from 
the episcopate, and the clerics from the clergy ; but if they 
be monks or laics, let them be anathematized/' 2 

The Essence of the Nicene Creed. — What is it to which 
the Christians of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries 
needed to subscribe in order to remain citizens of the 
Kingdom? It will be seen that the creed contains both 
facts and explanations of the facts or inferences from them. 
The ideal of religion held by these framers of creeds is 
totally different from the ideal expressed in the Sermon on 
the Mount. The disciples of Jesus would not have under- 
stood this creed. Had he proclaimed it to them, he would 
not have drawn them from their pursuits in Galilee to 
become his companions and missionaries. These Galileans 
would not have known the meaning of "very God of very 
God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father." 

1 The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Volume XIV, page 164. 
*Ibid., Volume XIV, page 265. 

207 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFOKMEKS 

They were not required to accept the eternity and change- 
lessness of Jesus before they were permitted to take up their 
cross to follow him. This creed would have been unintelli- 
gible to them because it moves in the realm of speculation, 
not conduct; metaphysics, not ethics. Evil men might 
assent to this creed : but wicked men would not make Jesus 
their Comrade. The creed and the use the church of those 
centuries made of it identified orthodoxy and morality, 
sectarianism and heresy, heresy and immorality. Citizen- 
ship in the Kingdom now was regarded as correct logic 
primarily: correct morals availed nothing unless assent 
was given to the established creed. 

Causes of the Changed Emphasis 

The Contact of Christianity with Greek Thought. — Ee- 

read the statements of Chapter XIV under the caption 
"Summary : The Coming Kingdom." With the multiplica- 
tion of churches and the expansion of Christian influence 
Christianity undertook what Paul failed to do at Athens — 
to convince the Greek mind of the reasonableness of the 
gospel. Then, too, the successes of the new religion drew 
upon it the criticism of the Greek that it was a peasant's 
faith : it had in it nothing to commend it to the thinking, 
philosophical man. It seems now that the service ren- 
dered by the apologists was extremely necessary, and that 
the result of their efforts was inevitable. This result was 
the introduction into Christianity of a philosophy of the 
sources of the regenerated moral life which came eventually 
to be more highly regarded than the life itself. Specula- 
tion took precedence over life. 

The "Dialogue of Justin Martyr With Trypho, a Jew." 
— This new spirit is finely expressed in the opening para- 
graphs of the "Dialogue of Justin Martyr with Trypho, a 
Jew": 

"While I was going about one morning in the walks of the 
Xystus [a public sheltered promenade at Ephesus] a certain 
man, with others in his company, having met me, said, 'Hail, 
O philosopher!' Immediately after saying this he turned 
round and walked along with me; his friends likewise fol- 

208 



KINGDOM AND CEEED 

lowed him. I, in turn, addressed him and asked, 'What is 
there important?' 'I was instructed,' he replied, 'that I 
ought not to despise or treat with indifference those who 
array themselves in this dress [that is, in the philosopher's 
garb] but to show them all kindness and to associate with 
them. Whenever I see anyone in such costume I gladly 
approach him, that some advantage may spring from the 
intercourse.' 'Who are you, most excellent man?' I asked. 'I 
am Trypho, a Hebrew,' he replied. 'And in what,' said I, 
'would you be profited by philosophy so much as by your own 
lawgiver and prophets?' 'Why not?' he replied. 'Do not the 
philosophers turn every discourse on God? Do not questions 
continually arise to them about his unity and providence? 
Is not this truly the duty of philosophy to investigate the 
Deity?' * Assuredly,' said I; 'so we too have believed.'" 

This conversation, together with the whole extended argu- 
ment, throws a stream of light upon the Hellenization of 
the religion of Jesus. Justin, a Christian teacher and 
missionary, dresses like a Greek philosopher; he frequents 
the places where philosophers assemble; he recognizes that 
philosophy concerns itself with ultimate religious problems ; 
he feels that Christianity is a philosophy older and better 
than the Greeks knew; he directs his evangelistic appeal 
to win the assent of a speculative mind rather than the 
obedience of an aroused conscience. An account of Jus- 
tin's conversion to Christianity, given to Trypho, shows 
that this philosophical appeal was a living appeal at least 
to some of the thoughtful Greeks. 

Origin of Sects. — This reshaping of Christianity in 
terms of Greek philosophy opened the way for numerous 
sects. There cannot be much difference among sincere 
men about moral conduct; but earnest men can hold widely 
diverging speculative opinions. The doctrinal result of 
Christian apology in the second and third centuries was 
the rapid growth of sects. Valentius and Marcion were the 
chiefs of the two widely scattered Gnostic sects, but these 
in turn were subdivided by their disciples. Manichaeism, a 
Gnostic sect, was a troubler of the church for many centu- 
ries. Augustine for a time was one of its followers. 

The Arian Controversy. — The immediate cause of the 
adoption of the Nicene Creed as the test of the Christian 

209 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

life was the necessity of checking the spread of Arianism. 
Arms, a presbyter of blameless life, trained in the famous 
school of Antioch, was in charge of one of the great churches 
of Alexandria in a. d. 318. Driven by his philosophical 
bent of mind, Arius was possessed by the conviction that 
God is one. This unity of God cannot be infringed upon 
by the existence of another being of the same substance 
and eternality as God. Arius thus states his position : 

We teach that the Son is not unbegotten nor in any way 
part of the unbegotten; that he does not derive his subsistence 
from any matter; but that by his own will and counsel he 
has subsisted before time and before ages as perfect God, 
only begotten and unchangeable; and that before he was 
begotten, or created, or purposed, or established, he was not. 
We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a begin- 
ning, but that God is without beginning. 8 

The Concern of Arius. — From this statement of his posi- 
tion it will be seen that Arius was concerned that the unity 
and eternity of the divine Being should not be abridged. 
Jesus for him was far more than a human being : he was 
not merely a creature of matter or of the time world. He 
was created before matter was created and he was a per- 
fect Being; but he was not created out of the 
substance of Deity, and he is not coeternal with God. 
Arius did not minimize the worship of Christ nor his part 
in human salvation. These views of Arius met a large 
response in the intellectual life of his day. In many ways 
they were not new. From the middle of the second century, 
under the influence of Greek philosophy, there had been 
attempts to reconcile the unity of God with the redemptive 
work and person of Christ. 

Monarchianism. — These views, known by the general 
name "Monarchianism," fall into two main groups : 

(a) By some Jesus was regarded as a Man in whom the 
spirit of God dwelt. Hippolytus, in his great work The 
Refutation of All Heresies (about a. d. 225), states the 
position of a certain Theodotus, who championed this view 
of Jesus : 

3 From a letter of Arius to Eusebius, Volume III, The Nicene and Post-Nicene 
Fathers, page 41. 

210 



KINGDOM AND CREED 

Theodotus maintains that Jesus was a mere man, born of 
a virgin, according to the counsel of the fathers, and that 
after he had lived in a way common to all men and had be- 
come preeminently religious he subsequently, at his baptism 
in Jordan, received Christ, who came down from above and 
descended upon him in the form of a dove. Therefore, miracu- 
lous power did not operate within him prior to the manifesta- 
tion of that Spirit which descended and proclaimed him to 
be the Christ. 4 

(&) By others Jesus was regarded not as a second divine 
Person but as the one God who had assumed flesh. This 
view was prominently advocated by a certain Praxeas of 
Asia Minor, who came to Eome about a. d. 180. Victor, 
Bishop of Rome, a. d. 190-98, and his immediate succes- 
sors, Zephyrinus and Callistus, gave general assent to the 
monarchical views advocated by Praxeas. Tertullian, in 
his tract "Against Praxeas," preserves the latter' s teaching. 

He maintains that there is one only Lord, the Almighty 
Creator of the world; that the Father himself came down 
into the virgin, was himself born of her, himself suffered, 
indeed was himself Jesus Christ. 

The Use of Creeds 

For the Instruction of Converts. — There are hints in 
the New Testament that Christians of the apostolic age 
were instructed by the use of certain formulated statements 
of accepted beliefs (1 Timothy 6. 12; 2 Timothy 1. 13; 2 
John, verses 9-11). Matthew 28. 19 implies a minimum 
of creed necessary to baptism, and the Didache, admitting 
to the Holy Communion only those baptized by this for- 
mula, stamps it as its creed. Prom time to time this 
baptismal creed was expanded. The need of a fuller state- 
ment of belief would be felt by all churches sooner or 
later. With all expansions the creed was believed to set 
forth the teaching of the apostles. The Old Eoman Creed 
is one of these early summaries of faith. It ran as follows : 

I believe in God, Father Almighty; 

And in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, 

Who was born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, 

Crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried; 

* Book VII, Chapter 23. 

211 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

The third day he rose from the dead, 

He ascended into Heaven, 

Sitteth at the right hand of the Father, 

Thence he shall come to judge living and dead; 

And in the Holy Ghost, 

Holy Church, 

Remission of sins, 

Resurrection of the flesh. 

This creed was in use in Eome at the beginning of the 
second century. It probably was called the Apostles' Creed 
from its first appearance and was designed to instruct cate- 
chumens. This need of a creed did not pass away. Even 
with the interpretation of Christian beliefs in terms of 
Greek philosophy there were still converts to the faith to 
be instructed in Christian fundamentals. 

To Exclude Sectaries. — In the midst of all the various 
sects there was a need for a definite faith. The bishops 
who formulated the Nicene Creed believed that they were 
expressing the faith of the apostles and considered them- 
selves their true successors. They felt at liberty therefore 
to exclude all who held a different faith. Hence, the schis- 
matic who did not accept the Nicene formulary was anathe- 
matized. He was cast out of the society of the faithful. 
He was deprived of his citizenship in the kingdom of God. 
Creed, rather than conduct, became the test of the true 
Christian. The excommunicated person may have led the 
purest life ; yet if he hesitated at one point of the creed, he 
was cast out. 

The Development of Doctrine 

The Work of Augustine. — During the fourth and fifth 
centuries the characteristic doctrines of the Catholic Church 
were developed. Augustine, bishop of Hippo in Africa, 
almost may be said to have accomplished this task alone. 
Two outstanding doctrines that have shaped the theology 
of centuries are (a) original sin and native depravity, and 
(b) predestination. Augustine states these doctrines as fol- 
lows: 

Original Sin and Native Depravity. — "God, the author 

212 



KINGDOM AND CEEED 

of natures, not of vices, created man upright; but man, 
being of his own will corrupted and justly condemned, begot 
corrupted and condemned children. For we were all in 
that one man, since we all were that one man, who fell into 
sin by the woman who was made from him before the sin. 
. . . The seminal nature was there from which we were 
to be propagated; and this being vitiated by sin, and bound 
by the chain of death, and justly condemned, man could 
not be born of man in any other state. Thus, from the bad 
use of free will there originated the whole train of evil 
which, with its concatenation of miseries, conveys the 
human race from its depraved origin, as from a corrupt 
root, on to the destruction of the second death, which has 
no end, those only being excepted who are freed by the 
grace of God." 5 

Predestination. — "We have distributed the human race 
into two parts, the one consisting of those who live accord- 
ing to man, the other of those who live according to God. 
These we also mystically call the two cities, or the two com- 
munities of men, of which the one is predestined to reign 
eternally with God, and the other to suffer eternal punish- 
ment with the devil. . . . When these two cities began 
to run their course by a series of deaths and births, the citi- 
zen of this world was the first born, and after him the 
stranger in this world, the citizen of the city of God, pre- 
destined by grace, elected by grace, by grace a stranger be- 
low, and by grace a citizen above. By grace, for so far as 
regards himself he is sprung from the same mass, all of 
which is condemned in its origin : but God, like a potter, of 
the same lump made one vessel of honor, another to dis- 
honor." 

Augustine's Statements Not New. — Important as these 
statements are, neither of them is precisely new. But in 
Augustine's treatment of them, coupled with his extraor- 
dinary genius, his services to the church in refuting heresy, 
in his exaltation of church government, they take on such 
solid power that they still dominate vast numbers of 
Christians. 

*City of God, Book XIII, Chapter XIV. 

213 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMERS 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 
A Shift of Christian Emphasis. — The Christian centuries 
from the early second to the middle of the fifth witnessed a 
shift of Christian emphasis from a religion of moral con- 
duct and loving fellowship with God and men into a reli- 
gion whose highest expression was loyalty to philosophical 
statements about religion's verities formulated by church 
authority. We see now that this development was a mis- 
take. It is always a blunder to confound creed with char- 
acter. Christianity was changed from a religion of the 
spirit into a religion of external authority. 

This Change Was Inevitable. — Just as the lapse of Is- 
rael's prophetic religion into Judaism, although a period 
of stagnation/ seems necessitated by its historical environ- 
ment, so the intellectual and political conditions of these 
early Christian centuries brought to pass this change in the 
religion of Christ. It is inconceivable now in what other 
manner the church could have weathered the scoffs of Greek 
thought, the breaking up of the Eoman Empire, and the 
inrush of the barbarians. Just as Judaism seems the one 
possible form of Israel's religion which could have with- 
stood the Hellenizing attempts of Alexander's successors, so 
rigid creed and monarchical government alone seem able to 
have withstood the opposing forces of Christianity in these 
trying times. 

God's Method. — When God cannot do his best with us 
he does his next best. The makers of these creeds and 
doctrines continually affirm that they had not changed the 
apostolic faith. Yet, without being aware of it, they did 
introduce momentous changes. Their sincere belief that 
they acted under the guidance of God witnesses to the con- 
tinuity of revelation. God was speaking in them the best 
message which their age would receive. He had a better 
message for them, but they could not hear it. Probably 
there will always be a place for speculation in religion, but 
it must not divorce religion from conduct and fellowship. 

The Test of Citizenship 
What About Dogmatic Creeds? — It is natural to apply 

214 



KINGDOM AND CEEED 

tests to determine who belong to the Kingdom. Even Jesus 
said, "Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, . . . 
but he that doeth the will of my Father who is in heaven." 
Spirituality far too often has been identified with rigid 
adherence to accepted doctrines. In all ages when religion 
has shrunk from a living experience with God into clinging 
to the experiences of past generations, the need of a dog- 
matic statement of beliefs is keenly felt, and loyalty to a 
creed becomes the test of sainthood. Nearly all the great 
controversies of the church, the clashes between denomina- 
tions, the cruelties imposed by the tribunals of the Inqui- 
sition, the struggles for reform and trials of heresy, have 
occurred because the ideal of religion as fellowship with 
God rebelled against the conception of religion as loyalty to 
formulated statements about God. 

What Is Spirituality? — To be spiritual is to think first, 
when enumerating the splendors of an age or the triumphs 
of an individual, of the achievements of virtue, of human- 
itarianism, of unselfish striving for the common welfare. 
To place one's confidence in truth, in justice, in purity, and 
in love, and to hold that these are the supreme life values ; 
something to lose money for if necessary; something for 
which political power and social leadership must be surren- 
dered if need arise ; something to go down to one's death for 
to make them dominant in civilization when blinded ig- 
norance threatens their destruction. 

Kingdom Citizenship. — To be a citizen of Christ's king- 
dom is to be engaged in propagating it. If you follow 
Christ's defining of spirituality, there need never pass one 
of your social contacts into which you have not thrust at 
least a tiny gleam of the finer life. The essential thing is 
for you yourselves to be dominated by the spiritual; to 
have committed yourselves irrevocably to the conviction that 
civilization enhances essentially by the truth, justice, and 
good will which permeate our human relationships. 

The Imparting of Ideals. — With this view of life unalter- 
ably fixed in your thought and feeling you cannot see peo- 
ple without imparting something of your ideals even into 
the tensest business conversation. Sometimes it is only a 

215 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

tone, a gesture, a kindly denial, a smiling face, the uncon- 
scious assertion that the man or the woman before you 
harbors no base thought and contemplates no unworthy 
action. Make it the rule of your life never to come into 
touch with any person without giving them a little gift out 
of the spiritual and you have contributed in the most sig- 
nificant manner to the upbuilding of the world. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. With what were the teachings of Jesus concerned? 

2. Discuss the meaning of the Nicene Creed. 

3. How was it used by the church authorities? 

4. In what ways did contact with Greek thought bring 
about a change in emphasis in Christian teaching? 

5. What light does the "Dialogue of Justin Martyr With 
Trypho, a Jew" throw upon the Hellenizing process? 

6. Discuss the Arian controversy and its results. 

7. What was the essence of the teaching of Monarchianism? 

8. Discuss the use of the creed made by the early church. 

9. What part did Augustine have in the development of 
Christian doctrine? 

10. Discuss "original sin and native depravity." 

11. What influence upon modern life has the doctrine of 
"predestination"? 

12. What influence upon practical life did the shifting of 
emphasis to creeds have? 

13. State the intellectual and political conditions responsible 
for this change. 

Eeading Keferences 

A Source Booh for Ancient Church History, Ayer, pages 75- 
129, 297-325. 

The Greek and Eastern Churches, Adeney, pages 41-101. 

The Church of the Fathers, Pullan, pages 44-68, 85-98. 

Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I, Chapter V. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume II, Chap- 
ters XI and XII; Volume III, pages 618-689.. 



216 



CHAPTEE XVII 

KINGDOM AND CHUECH 

The transformation of the Christianity of Jesus into the 
Christianity of the Eoman Catholic Church of the Middle 
Ages is, with few or no exceptions, the most striking move- 
ment of history. A survey of the process and its causes, by 
which a religion of the inner life developed into a religion 
of external formularies and political system, illumines not 
only the history of religion but the expressions of religion 
and the meaning of religion to-day. 

The Primacy oe the Eoman Church 

The Church at Rome the Acknowledged Leader. — At 

the close of the apostolic age the Christian community at 
Eome was the acknowledged leader among the various 
churches. There were numerous causes that contributed to 
this primacy. This church was located in the capital of the 
empire; its membership was large, due to its evangelistic 
zeal and to continual removals from the provinces to the 
imperial city; some of its members were quite influential; 
it possessed considerable wealth; it was active in charity; 
and it had been instructed by the two greatest apostles — 
Paul and Peter. The mother church at Jerusalem lost its 
leadership by its failure to keep in fraternal relations with 
Gentile Christianity and by the destruction of the city in 
a. d. 70. We have seen (Chapter XI) that at the close of 
the apostolic age the chief officer in a local church was its 
bishop. The early part of the second century the bishop 
had become the monarchical ruler of his church community. 
To strengthen his authority, it was easy to believe — what 
probably was asserted with sincerity — that the bishops had 
been appointed by the apostles and, therefore, were reliable 
guardians of apostolic teaching and practice. The bishops 
of those churches which had been founded by the apostles — 

217 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

namely, Ephesus, Corinth, and Eome — enjoyed unusual 
preeminence. 

The Primacy of the Eoman Bishop 

The Primacy of the Roman Church Assumed by the 
Roman Bishop. — When the bishop became the official repre- 
sentative and ruler of the church, the primacy of the 
Eoman Church was naturally assumed by the Eoman 
bishop. Two important controversies of the second century 
indicate that the primacy of the bishop of Eome was recog- 
nized generally. The Montanists, a sect that spread 
rapidly through Asia Minor, being persecuted by the Asia- 
tic bishops, sought recognition from Eleutheris, bishop of 
Eome. At the same time the church of Lyons, in Gaul, sent 
its representative to Eome in connection with the same con- 
troversy. This appeal of Christians at both extremes of the 
Christian world to the bishop of Eome indicates at this 
time (a. d. 177) his place of first importance. The decision 
of the bishop of Eome was adverse to the Montanists, and 
the Eoman bishop's attitude eventually led to their suppres- 
sion. Another controversy concerning the proper date to 
celebrate Easter, became acute about 190. Victor, bishop 
of Eome, issued an edict excommunicating every congrega- 
tion that did not follow the practice of Eome. This edict 
aroused much protest from his fellow bishops, but in the 
end the decision of Eome definitely settled the date of 
the Easter observance for Western Christendom. 

Irenaeus on the Primacy of the Roman Church and 
Bishop. — The primacy of the Eoman Church and, conse- 
quently, of its bishop, at the close of the second century 
is expressed by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons : 

"We put to confusion all those who assemble in unauthor- 
ized meetings by indicating that tradition derived from the 
apostles of the very great, the very ancient, and universally 
known church founded and organized at Rome by the two 
most glorious apostles — Peter and Paul. It is necessary that 
every church should agree with this church on account of 
its preeminent authority. 1 



1 Against Heresies, Book III, Chapter 3. 

218 



KINGDOM AND CHUKCH 

The Roman Bishops Claim Control Over the Entire 
Church. — In the third century the bishops of Eome claimed 
the right to exercise control over the whole of the church. 
Stephen excommunicated the churches of Africa and Asia 
because they maintained that heretics and schismatics on 
being received into the Catholic Church must be rebaptized. 
Firmilian, a bishop of Asia Minor, in a letter to Cyprian, 
bishop of Carthage, makes clear this claim of Stephen and 
his own indignation at the action of the bishop of Rome : 

I am justly indignant at Stephen, who so boasts of the 
place of his episcopate and contends that he holds the suc- 
cession from Peter, on whom the foundations of the church 
were laid. . . . How great sin have you [Stephen] heaped 
up for yourself when you cut yourself off from so many 
flocks? For while you think that all may be excommunicated 
by you, you have excommunicated yourself alone from all. 

The Identification of Christianity With the 
Church 

A New Conception of the Church After the Decian 
Persecution. — During the third century, when the bishops 
of Eome were striving to express and maintain their pri- 
macy, conditions that arose through the far-reaching perse- 
cutions of Christians by the emperor Decius (a. d. 250) 
became the occasion of the identification of Christianity 
with the church. Decius ordered all Christians to adopt 
the state religion and to sacrifice to the gods. Many Chris- 
tians were faithful unto death, but large numbers, espe- 
cially among the rich and prominent, apostatized. After 
the storm had passed, those who had sacrificed to idols 
sought fellowship again in the Christian community. Some 
of the strictest churchmen thought they ought never to be 
taken back into Christian fellowship ; others made it quite 
easy for the lapsed to regain their Christian standing. 
Those who suffered for the faith by loss of property, by 
imprisonment, or by death came to regard themselves and 
were regarded by many others in possession of the right 
to grant forgiveness to the lapsed. Many flagrant abuses, 
destructive of ecclesiastical order and moral discipline, 

219 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

arose. It was in reaction against this laxity toward apos- 
tasy that a new conception of the church became dominant. 
Christianity Identified With the Church. — Cyprian 
(a. d. 200-58), bishop of Carthage, held that the apos- 
tatized might again be received into church fellowship 
after due repentance and penitence. Those among the 
lapsed who were not so received, and all who received them 
in any other way had no part in the church and no fellow- 
ship with Christ. Cyprian declares : 

He who forsakes the church of God cannot attain unto 
the rewards of Christ. He can no longer have God for his 
Father who has not the church for his mother. 2 Whosoever 
he may be, and whatever he may be, he who is not in the 
church of Christ is not a Christian. 3 

The Church Identified With the Episcopacy. — Cyprian 
not only limits Christianity to church membership but 
also clearly states that the episcopacy essentially constitutes 
the church. It is impossible to be in the church and not 
be in relations of fellowship and obedience with the 
bishops : 

There is one God, one Christ, one church, and one chair 
founded upon the rock by the word of the Lord. [This chair 
for Cyprian is the episcopacy.] Let no one, beloved brethren, 
make you to err from the ways of the Lord; let them remain 
outside the church who have departed from the church; let 
them be without bishops who have rebelled against bishops.* 

Here Cyprian naturally assumes that he who is separated, 
in obedience, from his bishop, is without the church. But 
in Epistle LXVIII he becomes exceedingly explicit : 

They are the church who are a people united to the priests 
and the flock which adheres to its pastor. Whence you ought 
to know that the bishop is in the church and the church in 
the bishop; and if anyone be not with the bishop, then he is 
not in the church. 

Cyprian gave positive expression to a conception of the 
church and the church's relation to the Kingdom which the 
persecutions and factions made imperative. From the 

2 On the Unity of the Church, Chapter VI. 

» Epistle LI. 

« Epistle XXXIX. 

220 



KINGDOM AND CHUECH 

middle of the third century the idea of the church was a 
great autocratically governed state whose rulers were the 
bishops. Cyprian, although he calls the bishopric of Eome 
"the place of Peter" and "the sacerdotal throne," also ex- 
pressly insists that the episcopal power resides jointly in 
all bishops consecrated by Catholic authority. But it was 
only a process of time until the primacy of the Eoman 
see was fully recognized in Western Christendom. 

The Identification of the Church With the Eoman 

Papacy 

The Fourth Century. — The increasing authority of the 
Eoman bishop during the century after Cyprian is seen in 
the following incidents: 

(a) The Donatist controversy was referred to the bishop 
of Rome for settlement (a. d. 313). The Donatists arose 
in North Africa. They maintained that the validity of the 
sacraments depended on the pure character of the clergy 
who administered them; the Catholics held that the va- 
lidity of the sacraments depended on Christ and on their 
administration by properly ordained priests. The charac- 
ter of the latter had nothing to do with the efficacy of the 
sacraments. The Donatists appealed to the emperor Con- 
stantine, who referred the controversy to the bishop of 
Eome for adjudication. The letter of the emperor to the 
bishop of Eome is given by Eusebius in his Church His- 
tory, Volume X, Chapter V. 

(b) Athanasius and other oppressed adherents of the 
Nicene Creed, living in Alexandria and the remoter East, 
appealed to Julius, bishop of Eome (a. d. 337-52). Julius 
sent these bishops back to their churches with letters to 
their persecutors, charging them with violation of the 
canon law. Julius claimed that the synod that deposed 
the bishops who had appealed to him was illegal, since the 
Eoman bishop had not been invited to attend. The con- 
troversy is recorded in the history of Socrates, Book II, 
Chapters XV and XVII. 

(c) The Council of Sardica (a. d. 344) decreed that the 
bishop of Rome is the court of official appeal in the church. 

221 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

(d) Letter of Jerome (Epistle XVII) to Damasus, 
bishop of Rome (a. d. 377). — Jerome states that the church 
of Antioch in Syria is rent in three factions, but that all of 
them professed to cleave to the Rome bishop. Jerome asks 
Damasus to say which faction he favors and declares his 
own loyalty, saying, "He who clings to the chair of Peter 
is accepted by me." 

(e) Sircius (385-98), the first bishop to issue what may 
properly be termed a papal decree. — It was framed in the 
tone of supreme authority and was designed to promote 
the celibacy of the clergy. In discussing this subject he 
wrote : "No priest of the Lord is free to ignore the statutes 
of the apostolic see." 5 

The Fifth Century.— (a) Innocent I (a. d. 402-17) 
greatly advanced the growth of the papacy. He wrote to 
some bishops of Illyria : "I adjudge it to be an insult to the 
apostolic see that any hesitation should have occurred in 
a matter referred to and decided by that see, which is the 
head of all the churches." To the bishops of Africa, who 
sent him a report of the Council of Carthage, he declared : 
"You have not thought fit to trample under foot those 
institutions of the fathers, that, whatever may be done in 
provinces, they should not account concluded till it had 
come to the knowledge of this see; that all other churches 
might thence take what they should teach, just as all waters 
issue from their native fountain." 6 

(b) The papal position was greatly strengthened both 
by the claims and the public service of Leo (a. d. 440-61). 
(1) Leo's conception of the Roman bishopric may be seen 
in the following words taken from his sermon on the third 
anniversary of his pontificate: "In my humble person 
Peter is recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of 
all the shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep 
commended to him, and whose dignity is not abated even 
in so unworthy an heir." Leo carried on an extensive cor- 
respondence through all of which he insisted upon the 



5 Source Book for Ancient Church History, Ayer, page 416. 

6 Abridged from History of the Christian Church, Hurst, Volume I, page 726. 

222 



KINGDOM AND CHURCH 

supreme authority of the bishopric of Rome. (2) Twice 
Leo was able to save Rome from destruction. In 452, 
when Attila, king of the Huns, was threatening Rome, Leo, 
with two companions, entered Attila's camp and, by remon- 
strances and gifts, persuaded this ruthless conqueror to 
spare the city. When Genseric, the leader of the Yandals, 
pillaged Rome in A. d. 455, Leo pledged him to forego 
burning the city and slaughtering its inhabitants. 

Gregory the Great Bishop of Rome (A. D. 590-604).— 
(a) With Gregory I the papacy, both as an autocratic ec- 
clesiastical rulership and as a temporal power, was fully 
established. Gregory was born in Rome and was descended 
from a wealthy patrician family. In 573 he became pre- 
fect, the highest official of the city of Rome. But in the 
midst of his political career he gave up his public honors, 
turned monk, gave his property in charity and to establish 
monasteries, and turned his palace on the Cselian hill into a 
convent. In 590, much against his will, he was chosen 
pope. 

(b) Gregory extended the primacy of Rome. He did so, 
not so much by direct assertion of the prerogatives of the 
Roman episcopate, although he asserted the supremacy of 
Rome in uncompromising fashion ["I know of no bishop 
who is not subject to the apostolic see when a fault has been 
committed"], but rather in that he acted constantly 
upon the assumption of his primacy in the widest 
and most detailed relationships with the churches of the 
East and the West. The following words addressed to the 
bishops of Sicily illustrate the spirit and method of Gre- 
gory in making good the claims of the Roman see to uni- 
versal obedience: 

Gregory, servant of the servants of God, to all the bishops 
constituted throughout Sicily: We have plainly perceived it 
to be very necessary that, even as our predecessors thought 
fit to do, we should commit all things to one and the same 
person; and that where we cannot be present ourselves, our 
authority should be represented through him to whom we 
send our instructions. Wherefore, with the help of God, 
we have appointed Peter, subdeacon of our see, our delegate 
in the province of Sicily. 

223 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

This policy of establishing papal legates in districts beyond 
Rome was widely practiced. 

(c) Gregory insisted everywhere upon pure living and, 
the practice of justice. He insisted that the bishops should 
give themselves to preaching and to the spiritual guidance 
of their churches. He insisted that "the ruler should al- 
ways be pure in thought, inasmuch as no impurity ought 
to pollute him who has undertaken the office of wiping 
away the stains of pollution in the hearts of others; for 
the hand that would cleanse from dirt must needs be 
clean." Gregory used the vast revenue of the Roman 
Church to alleviate distress. The moral and benevolent 
character of his rule greatly augmented his power. 

(d) The political and temporal power of the papacy first 
came to distinct recognition in Gregory. The invasion of 
the Lombards so weakened the imperial government in 
Italy that the pope was the only outstanding person upon 
whom could fall the responsibility of conserving the best 
of the old Roman order. The necessities of the situation 
forced Gregory to become a political ruler. Undoubtedly 
he saw the advantages that accrued to the papacy, but ap- 
parently Gregory did not covet the new responsibilities. 
During these changing times he appointed governors of 
cities, issued orders to generals, became the only ruler of 
Rome, and treated, like any temporal prince, with the 
Lombard king. By the end of Gregory's episcopate the 
papacy had become a state as well as a church. The city 
of the Caesars had become the city of the popes. 

(e) The wealth of the Roman see previous to Gregory's 
pontificate and during his tenure of office became very 
large. The possession of these landed estates, amounting 
to more than a million acres, justified Gregory's political 
activity; and the revenue from these lands, aggregating a 
million and a half dollars annually and spent entirely in 
benevolence, tended greatly to overcome antagonism to the 
Roman see. This wealth accumulated rapidly in the latter 
part of the sixth century. The barbarian invasion of Italy 
destroyed, exiled, or drove into monasteries many wealthy 
families. In numerous cases such families deeded their 

224 



KINGDOM AND CHUECH 

lands to the Eoman prelate. These estates were scattered 
far and wide and, under Gregory's administration, con- 
tributed greatly to the aggrandizement of the papacy. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Christianity Becomes a Church. — The present chapter, 
together with the preceding, indicates the transformation 
of Christianity from a religion of the spirit into a religion 
of externals; into loyalty to intellectual definitions and 
obedience of bishops. This was a sad decline from the 
lofty ideal of Jesus. But, looking back to those centuries, 
it seems now that no other type of Christianity than this 
external organization could have survived the breaking up 
of the Eoman Empire and the barbarian invasions. 

Influences That Tended Toward the Papacy. — While 
there was further development of the papacy beyond Greg- 
ory, the main outlines of the Eoman- Catholic system were 
fully laid down by the close of the sixth century. Many 
and varied influences made possible the claims of the 
Eoman bishops and the final acceptance of their claims by 
Western Christianity. Some of these are : 

(a) Rome was the only great city of the West, and this 
church was the only apostolic church of the West. 
— It speedily became large, prosperous, exceedingly be- 
nevolent, and actively missionary. It did not give itself 
so freely to speculation as the Eastern churches, therefore 
was more conservative, changed slowly, and was more 
orthodox. Then, too, located in the imperial capital, all its 
traditions were of empire. Its bishops generally possessed 
the Eoman legal mind and genius for political organiza- 
tion. The idea of a divinely founded and eternal empire 
was inherited by the church from the imperial govern- 
ment. 

(b) Certain historical events contributed to the growth 
of the Roman-Catholic system. — Most important among 
these were the removal of the capital of the empire to 
Constantinople, which gave the bishop of Eome greater 
freedom in the West ; the invasion of the barbarians ruined 
and scattered the ancient and wealthy Italian families, 

225 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

whose removal placed the bishops of Rome in the leader- 
ship of Roman interests in Italy; the fall of the Western 
empire left the church as the only representative of the 
old common life, and the surviving Romans of the prov- 
inces turned the more readily for guidance to the church 
of Rome. 

The Chair of Saint Peter. — It was such influences as 
these and the need of church unity and outward organiza- 
tion which enabled the bishops of Rome to seize upon the 
words of Christ to Peter and wrest them into divine 
authority for their claims to supremacy. By the end of the 
sixth century the Kingdom had become a church. The 
episcopate, reaching its essential expression in the bishop of 
Rome, was held to be a divinely given order in which the 
Holy Spirit continued his guidance of God's people. 

Chuech Buildees 

What Is the True Belation Between the Kingdom of 
God and the Church? — Can one belong to God's kingdom 
and not be a member of the church ? Church membership 
has no mysterious efficacy to transform character. The 
church should be regarded as the school of the Chris- 
tian life. Within its services, fellowship, and social tasks 
its members should discover and appropriate the lessons 
and the discipline of Christian character. The church 
is not now and never has been a community of saints. 
The church, regarded as a school, has room for persons 
of varied beliefs and different stages of character achieve- 
ments. Its fundamental bond of union would be the 
desire to know and to experience nobler life and the belief 
that this higher life is to be found in the teaching and 
fellowship of Christ. Such a church could say to all non- 
church people: "Come with us into the school of Christ. 
We do not profess a sainthood of achievement but of long- 
ing. We know that we have not fully accomplished but we 
are upheld by our aspirations. Let us live in the midst of 
Christ's ideals until their glory compels us to reproduce 
them within ourselves." 

226 



KINGDOM AND CHUKCH 

A Living Proposition. — Such a church never can be 
externalized in creed or office; in ancient formularies or 
modern organizations. Its power will be the spiritual long- 
ings of its members: its unity will be secured by its uni- 
versal aspiration after life's spiritual goals. There is ever 
the tendency to externalize religion by conformity to some 
outward expression of a past religious impulse ; to be satis- 
fied with church attendance, tithing one's income for reli- 
gious interests, serving in some official position in a charity 
or missionary organization. Some active relationship to 
outer life will spring from a true religious experience ; but 
religion itself is something finer, something more intimate, 
something more real, than any outward act or loyalty which 
may spring from it. Eeligion essentially is comradeship 
with God. 

New Occasions Ever Teach New Duties. — Eeligion ought 
to find new outward expressions with the changing ages. 
The entrance of Greek thought into Christianity and the 
breaking up of the Roman Empire occasioned the church 
of the Middle Ages, an autocratic government. But the 
government is not the essential thing; not the primary 
thing; not the permanent thing. The awakened and grow- 
ing spiritual life within man is the dominating element of 
religion, and this life of the spirit will need changing insti- 
tutions and creeds from age to age. Beware lest, in cling- 
ing to the transient form, the eternal experience is silenced. 

Toil for an Ideal. — Recall the men who made the papacy. 
They did not labor primarily for themselves; they toiled 
for an ideal, for the men who should come after them. 
It was this abandonment of their lives to a cause which 
won them their triumphs. The permanent victories are 
won through unselfish struggles. The trophies I win for 
myself quickly perish: those I win for my cause endure. 
Let us live our lives in behalf of the forward movements 
of God's kingdom, and our sacrifices take on immortality. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. How came the church at Rome to be the acknowledged 
leader among the Christian communities? 

227 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

2. By what process did the Roman bishop assume the 
primacy of the Roman Church? 

3. Discuss the views of Irenseus on Roman primacy. 

4. Discuss the circumstances following the Decian perse- 
cution which created a new conception of the church. 

5. How came the church to be identified with the episco- 
pacy? 

6. What conditions made possible the development of the 
papacy? 

7. Describe some of the steps in the process. 

8. Outline the part taken by Gregory the Great in establish- 
ing the papacy. 

9. What essential change took place in Christianity when 
it became a church? 

10. State some of the historical events that strengthened 
the papacy? 

11. How were Jesus' words to Peter twisted to give the 
papacy Scriptural backing? 

12. What influence has the papacy had upon the Kingdom? 

Reading References 

Article "Papacy" in Encyclopedia Britannica. 
The Church of the Fathers, Pullan, pages 382-99. 
Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II, pages 236-62. 
Civilization During the Middle Ages, Adams, Chapter VI. 
The Church and the Barbarians, Hutton, pages 60-71. 



228 



CHAPTEE XVIII 

CHBISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO PAGAN EUEOPE 

Previous chapters have dealt with the missionary ex- 
pansion of Christianity in Mediterranean lands. With the 
exception of the interior of Asia Minor no reference has 
been made to the extension of the gospel among primitive 
heathenism. Christianity won its early triumphs among a 
Greek-speaking people. When it passed beyond the Greek 
world it still was moving during the early centuries within 
civilized areas. This chapter sets forth something of the 
missionary activities of the church in Christianizing north- 
ern Europe. 

The Christian World of a. d. 350 

The Roman Empire Nominally Christian. — The Eoman 
Empire at the middle of the fourth century became the 
increasing prey of the barbarians. At this time it extended 
from England to Armenia. Its northern boundary was 
marked by the Ehine and Danube ; its southern by a fringe 
of coast in northern Africa. Borne and Constantinople 
were its capitals. This Eoman world may be said, in a loose 
sense, to have been a Christian world. Christianity was 
known in all its great centers. The bishops of 
York, Lincoln, and London were present at the Council 
of Aries in a. d. 314. There were resident bishops in all the 
populous centers of Gaul, but the masses undoubtedly were 
still pagan. The same conditions held for German terri- 
tory incorporated within the empire. There were Chris- 
tian communities in the large towns, but their numbers 
were not large, and the majority of the people still clung 
to their ancient religious practices. The older sections of 
the empire were much more Christianized. In many parts 
half or two thirds of the population had become Christian. 

229 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOBMEBS 

Soldiers, merchants, slaves, and missionaries, impelled by 
their own enthusiasm, had carried the gospel through 
this vast area. But there is no record of any church 
adopting a missionary program or sending forth a mission- 
ary band into the waiting world. 

The Barbarian Invasions. — About the middle of the 
fourth century there began some remarkable migrations 
of barbarian peoples across Europe into the civilized Medi- 
terranean lands. Taking with them all their possessions, 
whole tribes left their ancient abodes and crossed the boun- 
daries of the Eoman Empire, where, by conquest or peace- 
able treaty, residence was secured. At the middle of the 
second century the Goths left their lands lying along the 
Baltic Sea and slowly moved southward. By a. d. 200 they 
had established themselves along the northeast shores of the 
Black Sea and the lower Danube. They frequently over- 
ran Greece and Asia Minor. In 376 about one hundred 
thousand of these Goths were given permission by the em- 
peror to cross the Danube and settle within the empire. 
Under Alaric in 395 they ravaged Greece, invaded Italy, 
and sacked Borne (410). Alaric's successors established a 
West Gothic kingdom on both sides of the Pyrenees by 420. 
Other pagan tribes possessed themselves of other portions 
of the empire. The Vandals won North Africa in 429 ; the 
Franks swept south from the mouth of the Bhine and held 
the major part of Gaul at the beginning of the sixth cen- 
tury ; in the fifth century the Angles and Saxons were tak- 
ing possession of Britain ; the Burgundians were in Alsace 
and Switzerland by the middle of the fifth century; Italy 
and Illyria belonged to the East Goths; Saxons, Jutes, 
Frisians, Thuringians, and many other German tribes were 
to the north of the ancient limits of the empire. 

The Christianizing of the Germans Within the 
Empire 

The Witness of Slaves. — It is probable that nearly all 
of these Germanic peoples had many Christians among 
them before they crossed the boundaries of the Boman 
Empire. This is clearly true of the Goths. On their raids 

230 



CHBISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO EUKOPE 

into Asia Minor during the early part of the third century 
they had borne home with them Christian prisoners. These 
slaves, like the Jewish maid in Naaman's household, did 
not keep silent about their religion. Women and children 
usually were the first to hear the message of Christ, but 
sturdy warriors too gave up their idols. But this Chris- 
tianity had no effective leadership. 

Ulfila, the Apostle of the Goths. — Ulfila was born among 
the Goths in a. d. 310 and at thirty years of age was conse- 
crated bishop of the Goths by the bishop of Constantinople, 
at this time the leader of Arian Christianity. He won 
great success among his people, organizing the scattered 
Christians into churches, instructing them, and translat- 
ing the Scriptures into the Gothic language. When the 
Goths crossed the Danube in 376, the whole of these 
migrants were Christian. 

Other Missionary Influences. — From the middle of the 
fourth century to the time of Gregory I the German 
peoples were in constant motion and therefore came into 
contact with Christianity in various ways. Thousands of 
Christian captives were carried off in their numerous raids 
into Eoman territory; barbarian soldiers serving in the 
armies of the empire carried home with them the new 
religion ; traders exhibited their religious beliefs as well as 
offered their wares; exiled Christians and fugitives from 
the empire contributed something to the leavening influ- 
ences. Then, there was the open-mindedness of the later 
barbarians to learn the religion that seemed to lie behind 
the culture of the southlands. Finally, wherever the bar- 
barians crossed into the empire, they eventually all became 
Christians. 

Church Missionary Activities in Pagan Europe 

Christian Missions in Ireland. — It is not known when or 
by whom Christianity was introduced into Ireland. In 
a. d. 431 Bishop Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine to 
the Christians in Ireland. These Christians probably were 
slaves, shipwrecked sailors, fugitives, and returned mer- 

231 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEKS 

chants and soldiers. However, the conversion of Ireland 
was due mainly to Saint Patrick, who, consecrated bishop 
by the bishop of Auxerre in Gaul, entered Ireland in 432 
and labored until his death in 461. Patrick in his boybood 
had been a slave in Ireland. Its wretched heathenism 
awakened in him a passion to make the people acquainted 
with Christ. He was both missionary and church organ- 
izer; and while paganism was not extinguished in his day, 
Ireland has had a continuous Christian history since his 
time. Irish Christianity of this period was monastic 
Christianity. Hundreds of monastic settlements for men 
and women were established throughout the island. To 
become a Christian was to enter a convent. Some of these 
monasteries had thousands of Christians living within 
their walls. These Irish convents were schools of learning. 
Ovid and Vergil were explained, and Greek authors were 
faithfully studied. To critics who questioned their devo- 
tion to the liberal studies they replied: "If we have the 
knowledge of God, we shall never offend God ; they who dis- 
obey him are those who know him not." 

A Mission to the Germanic Tribes in England. — The 
invading Angles, Saxons, and Jutes drove the Celts, who 
to some extent had been Christianized during the Koman 
occupation of Britain, into the rugged and mountainous 
sections, and the land once more was pagan. Gregory the 
Great, before he was elevated to the papacy, had his interest 
aroused in England as a mission field by the sight of some 
English slaves in the Eoman forum. When he became 
pope he purchased some English slave boys to train them as 
missionaries to their people. But his interest could not 
wait so long, and Augustine was chosen to head a mission 
to England. He landed with about forty followers on the 
shores of Britain in a. d. 597. iEthelberht, king of Kent, 
was the most powerful English prince at this time. The 
learned Bede (673-735) in his Church History preserves 
the account of the meeting of Augustine and the king of 
Kent: 

Augustine and his companions, sending to iEthelberht, 
signified that they were come from Rome and brought a 

232 



CHEISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO EUKOPE 

joyful message, which most undoubtedly assured to those 
that hearkened to it everlasting joys of heaven. . . . Some 
days after, the king . . . ordered Augustine and his com- 
panions to come and hold a conference with him. He had 
taken the precaution that they should not come to him in 
any house, lest by so coming, according to an ancient super- 
stition, if they practiced any magical arts, they might impose 
upon him and so get the better of him. But they came en- 
dued with divine, not with magic power, bearing a silver 
cross for their banner and the image of our Lord and Saviour 
painted on a board; and, chanting litanies, they offered up 
their prayers to the Lord for the eternal salvation both of 
themselves and of those to whom and for whom they had 
come. 

JEthelberht listened attentively to their message but 
declined to accept the novel religion. But he gave them 
residence in Canterbury and liberty to preach their Chris- 
tian message. However, within a few months the king 
was baptized, and Christianity was securely implanted 
in England. From Canterbury missionaries went forth 
into other petty kingdoms. Success did not always come 
at once nor was it always permanent. Heathenism made 
many efforts to stamp out the new religion. But Chris- 
tianity, bringing a wider outlook, a constant influence 
toward order and "unity, an impulse toward purer morals 
and intellectual achievements, gradually displaced the 
paganism of the contending tribes and became the most 
dominant force in the development of the English nation. 
The Franks Accept Christianity for Political Purposes. 
— The Christianizing of the German tribes began with the 
baptism of Clovis, the Frankish king, on Christmas Day, 
a. d. 496. Three years previously Clovis had married Clo- 
tilda, a Burgundian princess and a Christian. She set her- 
self to convert her husband. Half persuaded by his wife 
and convinced by the manifest wisdom of choosing Chris- 
tianity as a state policy, Clovis threw in his fortunes with 
the new religion. Many of the Koman-Gallic subjects of 
Clovis were Christians, and the Goths in southern Gaul, 
whom Clovis wished to drive across the Pyrenees, were 
Arian Christians. Thus, the choice of the king drew him- 
self and his subjects into closer unity and arrayed on his 

233 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

side the Catholic Church in his struggles with the Goths. 
Clovis came to look upon his campaigns against the Arian 
Goths and the pagan German tribes as religious wars. 

The Frankish Church Without Spiritual Power. — The 
Frankish Church under Clovis and his successors flourished 
exceedingly. It had little connection with Rome until the 
pontificate of Gregory the Great. It was a national church 
dominated by the Frankish kings. But the Christianity of 
the Franks was far from ideal. The most frightful crimes 
were perpetrated. Greed, sensuality, and ignorance char- 
acterized the clergy. Gregory of Tours writes of bishops 
who commonly were carried away from the table drunk; 
bishops rode armed to battle, engaged in brawls, adulteries, 
robberies, and assassinations. Pagan altars stood opposite 
Christian churches, and men worshiped at both shrines. 
Gregory the Great endeavored to awaken the Frankish 
Church to better things. He could not do much, but he 
inaugurated the beginning of a nobler day. He set up a 
new intercourse between Rome and Gaul; he held up a 
purer Christian ideal before a half -pagan people; he com- 
pelled a new type of bishop to be known where the episcopal 
office had become the leading opportunity for avarice, lust, 
and general lawlessness. The pontificate of Gregory in its 
relations with Frankish Christianity may truly be regarded 
as one of the church's missionary activities of the seventh 
century. 

Missions to Pagan Germany 

The Irish Missionaries. — The children of Saint Patrick 
were filled with an indefatigable zeal to spread their reli- 
gion into distant lands. The ascetic passion and the mis- 
sion passion were united in them. They located hermitages 
beyond the reach of man, yet they ever moved out of their 
seclusion to win new converts to their monastic Christianity. 
Columba was a restless missionary. He carried the first 
gospel message into northern Scotland, visited many islands 
of the Scottish coast, and built the famous Iona convent, 
where he died. During the sixth and seventh centuries 
monasteries were established by these Irish missionaries 

234 



CHRISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO EUROPE 

not only in Italy, Switzerland, and France, but also among 
the Frisians and Saxons of pagan Germany. These Irish 
monks usually traveled in bands of twelve, preaching, plant- 
ing churches, and gathering their converts into monasteries 
and nunneries. The most famous of these Irish mission- 
aries in Europe was Saint Columbanus. He first crossed 
into Britain, then into Gaul, where a decadent Christianity 
existed among the Franks and Burgundians. Columbanus 
spent several stormy years among the Franks, seeking to 
purify their religion, but finally was expelled. Then he 
lived a brief time among the heathen Alemanni, at Bre- 
gentz on Lake Constance. Here, with impetuous zeal, the 
missionaries burned the temples and threw the idols into 
the lake. These violent measures infuriated their heathen 
neighbors, but the monks held on and later, at Saint Gall, 
established a monastery famous for many centuries. Co- 
lumbanus later built a monastery at Bobbio in Italy among 
the Lombards, where he died. 

Anglo-Saxon Missions in Northern Europe. — (a) The 
failure of the Irish missionaries. — Irish missionaries failed 
to organize their work effectively. It was due rather to the 
missionaries of Britain, with their greater genius to organ- 
ize churches, to train a native priesthood, to govern monas- 
teries, and to accomplish their work in fellowship with 
Eome and under papal direction, that the German tribes 
were won to Christianity. 

(&) Wilfrid, bishop of York, the first Anglo-Saxon mis- 
sionary to pagan Germans. — In a. d. 678, accompanied by a 
numerous band of monks, Wilfrid landed among the 
Frisians, who occupied all the northeast of Germany. He 
was hospitably received, and that year many chiefs and 
thousands of their people were baptized. Wilfrid was fol- 
lowed a few years later by another Saxon — Willibrord — 
who, with eleven companions, went to Utrecht. A native 
Frisian church was organized, but little permanent success 
was attained. 

(c) Boniface the pre-eminent missionary to the Germanic 
pagans. — Boniface was trained in a West-Saxon monas- 
tery and, refusing his election to the abbacy, set out for 

235 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND KEFOEMERS 

Frisia. Two years later, a. d. 718, he was in Rome to seek 
approval of his mission. The next three years were spent 
with Willibrord at Utrecht. Then he began a mission in 
Hesse and was successful in winning thousands of converts. 
He was called to Rome and consecrated bishop by Gregory 
II. His episcopal vows pledged his supreme loyalty to the 
papacy. He was to set up the practices of the Roman 
Church in his missions and have no fellowship with bishops 
who did not conform to the canons recognized by Rome. 
In 732 he was consecrated archbishop by Gregory III and 
made the papal legate in the northern lands. From Hesse, 
Boniface passed into Thuringia. Everywhere Boniface won 
pagans to the Christian religion and corrected abuses 
among the lax and indolent priests and monks. Here, as in 
Hesse, he founded schools, churches, and convents for men 
and for women. He established the episcopal sees of Wurz- 
burg and Erfurt in Thuringia. He wished to preach to 
the pagans of Saxony, but Gregory III sent him into Ba- 
varia to reorganize the churches, where four bishoprics 
were established to bring the Christian communities into 
conformity to Rome. From 742 to 753 Boniface was en- 
gaged in reforms affecting the Frankish Church. At Doc- 
kum, in 754, he and his party were set upon by savages and 
slain. 

(d) Charlemagne exhibits another type of missionary 
zeal. — The Saxons long had regarded Christianity as the 
mark of Frankish domination. Charlemagne marched 
against them in a. d. 772, threw down the national idol at 
Eresburg, and pillaged its temple. In 776 the Saxons at- 
tacked the Franks but were defeated by Charlemagne, and 
the humbled Saxons promised to become Christians. Many 
thousands were baptized at a great assembly at Paderborn 
in 777. Numerous missionaries, sent among the Saxons by 
Charlemagne, destroyed the pagan sanctuaries. Several 
rebellions broke out, and thousands were beheaded by 
Charlemagne; and from 795 to 804 thousands of Saxons 
who refused to be loyal Christians were banished. After 
a third of the population had been exiled, the remainder 
of the pagans yielded. 

236 



CHRISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO EUBOPE 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Papal Christianity Given to the Pagans. — It was not the 

Christianity of Jesus or of Paul which was established in 
these pagan lands; it was the Christianity of the Nicene 
Creed and, eventually, of the papacy; and such Christianity 
did not make an impressive and unescapable appeal to the 
moral life. It was a prolonged task to mold the morals 
of paganism into conformity to the Sermon on the Mount. 
It has not yet been done. But it was better than paganism, 
and its acceptance by northern Europe was a noteworthy 
epoch in history. 

Characteristics of the Missionary Conquest of the Ger- 
manic Nations. — There are at least four interesting ele- 
ments in this missionary conquest of the Germanic nations. 
It was an ascetic and monastic Christianity that undertook 
the more heroic tasks and accomplished the more far-reach- 
ing results. Women played no mean part in the Christian- 
izing process. The Christian wife of Clovis was the chief 
agent in his conversion. Bertha, the Christian spouse of 
^Ethelberht, prepared the liberal mood in which the king 
received the mission of Augustine ; and many of the noblest 
and noted women of England followed their kinsmen to 
pagan Germany to spend their days in convents to train 
the women who came to them out of heathenism. The 
abbesses of the English nunneries frequently came from 
royal families. The third noteworthy aspect is the leader- 
ship taken by Irish and English Christians in the evangel- 
ization of the continent. Finally, the missionary expansion 
during these centuries tended toward the aggrandizement 
of the Eoman Church. The seed sown in the papal mission 
of St. Augustine bore a hundredfold. 

The Church Silently Molds a Better Humanity. — These 
centuries, in spite of all barbarism, were great centuries. 
The Eoman Empire in the West passes away; barbarians 
possess themselves of the fair provinces of the once glorious 
realm of Borne, but civilization recovers itself anew. New 
nations, young, vigorous, and alert, arise and hold in their 
keeping the destiny of Europe ; but through all this inde- 

237 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND REFOKMEKS 

pendence and brutality the church is silently molding them 
into a better humanity. Many abuses the church could not 
overcome; many evils were tolerated within the church; 
Christianity was far from pure and holy: but the general 
tendency was toward civilization and a nobler world order. 
The Kingdom was coming. 

The Missionary Torch 

Christianity Is Essentially Missionary. — Jesus lighted a 
new ideal of life through his teaching and his living and, 
touching the hopes and fears of his disciples until their 
lives too flamed into triumph, sent them forth to blazon 
a new individual and social goal. The Christian experi- 
ence of Jesus and of those who knew him best was in essence 
missionary. It lived by restatement. It flowered in pub- 
lication. Any Christianity that keeps its message to itself 
is an adulteration. Any Christian whose religious thinking 
is not a passion to carry the gospel to the nearest and to 
the farthest man, socially and geographically, does not be- 
long to the inner company of Christ. 

Shall We Blame or Love? — The church has committed 
many crimes in the name of religion. It has perpetrated 
enough wrongs and been indifferent toward enough just 
cries for help to arouse in many persons antipathy and 
denunciation. But the church often has been the bulwark 
of a decadent age. It rendered the world an incomparable 
service when the Eoman Empire was going to pieces. The 
Christian missions of the fifth to the eighth centuries saved 
the world from ruin. The church never yet has been ideal. 
It still shrinks from individual evangelism, foreign and 
domestic missions, and especially from an earnest and un- 
hesitating leadership in the economic clashes of moderr 
society. Our criticisms of the church must be in love, not 
hate ; in hope, not despair. Let us love the church with new 
passion and give it a worthy and glorious place in the con- 
flict between right and wrong. 

The Bettering of the Church Ever Has Been Accom- 
plished by Individuals. — It is not done by legislation nor 

238 



CHRISTIANITY'S APPEAL TO EUEOPE 

by some miracle of mass movements. Individual men and 
women, seeing the great need, must give themselves to the 
great task. Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Willibrord, 
Boniface, Augustine, Gregory — these are the great names 
of the age we have been studying. They waited for no 
social uprising ; they faced the masses with their individual 
vision. By stripping themselves of luxury they possessed 
the spirit of hazard unto death. God alone knows the need, 
of our age, of men and women who can dare all for the 
Christian conquest of the institutions of the world. In the 
midst of appalling need we must lift our souls to God. 
He will gird us for the great task. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. To what extent had the empire been Christianized by 
350? 

2. By what methods had Christianity been advanced in 
the Roman world? 

3. Discuss the character of the gospel message during this 
period. 

4. What efforts were made to Christianize the barbarians 
before they crossed the boundaries of the empire? 

5. Discuss the influence of Ulfila. 

6. Discuss the nature of the Irish missions. 

7. In what way did Christianity win in England at this 
time? 

8. Discuss the conversion of the Franks and the character of 
their Christianity. 

9. What did Gregory do for the Frankish Church? 

10. What was the method of the Irish missionaries? 

11. Discuss the missionary work of Wilfrid, Boniface, and 
Charlemagne. 

12. Discuss the part women had in these missionary ac- 
tivities. 

13. From which sections came the missionary spirit and 
the evangelists? 

14. How did the missions in northern Europe strengthen 
the papacy? 

15. In what sense was the extension of the church from 
the sixth to the eighth century the salvation of civilization? 

Selected Headings 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 129-34, 
195-202. 

239 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

The Church and the Barbarians, Hutton, pages 113-42. 

The Latin Church in the Middle Ages, Lagarde, pages 1- 
30. 

The Medieval Mind, Taylor, Volume II, pages 169-204. 

Source Book for Ancient Church History, Ayer, pages 
564-614. 



240 



CHAPTEE XIX 

THE MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

No chapter of Christian history is richer in interest 
or more the subject equally of praise and blame than that 
which tells the story of that ideal of piety and that mode 
of life termed monasticism. At the center of the best 
monastic life was the desire to fulfill Christ's own concep- 
tion of human privilege and duty — namely, to live as 
brothers devoted to the will of God. Any effort to fulfill 
such an ideal has a place in the developing kingdom 
of God. That such multitudes of men and women through 
several centuries found the convent a spiritual household 
makes an understanding of monasticism important to every 
student. 

The Beginnings of Christian Monasticism 

The Origin of Monasticism. — The roots of monasticism 
are to be found in the mystical and ascetic tendencies of the 
Christianity of the apostolic age. To know Christ fully 
was to withdraw from even some of the lawful activities of 
life. Fasting was the simplest form of the ascetic life, but 
celibacy was always the chief asceticism. At an early date 
female ascetics received ecclesiastical recognition. Appar- 
ently, from the quotation below, there were organized com- 
munities for women by the middle of the third century. 
By this date there were also male ascetics who lived the 
hermit life near the towns and villages. A certain Anthony, 
whom the church Fathers soon called the Great, was the 
inaugurator of Christian monasticism. He was the son of 
a well-to-do Egyptian family of the village of Coma. 
Athanasius (296-373) has written his biography: 

About six months after the death of his parents, going 
according to custom into the Lord's house, he communed 
with himself and reflected as he walked how the apostles 

241 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMERS 

left all and followed the Saviour; and how they in the Acts 
sold their possessions and brought and laid them at the 
apostles' feet for distribution to the needy, and what and how 
great a hope was laid up for them in heaven. Pondering 
over these things, he entered the church, and it happened 
that the gospel was being read. . . . "If thou wouldst be 
perfect, go and sell that thou hast and give to the poor; and 
come and follow me, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven." 
Anthony, as though God had put him in mind of the saints, 
and the passage had been read on his account, went out im- 
mediately from the church and gave the possessions of his 
forefathers to the villagers. . . . Having committed his sis- 
ter to known and faithful virgins and put her into a convent, 
he henceforth devoted himself outside his house to discipline. 
So for nearly twenty years he continued training himself in 
solitude, never going forth and seldom seen by any. After 
this, when many were eager to imitate his discipline, and his 
acquaintances came, Anthony persuaded many to embrace the 
solitary life. Thus it happened that cells arose even in 
the mountains, and the desert was colonized by monks, who 
came forth from their own people and enrolled themselves 
for the citizenship in the heavens. 1 

The Hermit Not a Monastic. — Egyptian monasticism 
reached its height by 400. Multiplied thousands of men 
and many women embraced this way to save their souls. 
This Egyptian ascetic life, strictly speaking, was not mo- 
nasticism ; it resembled much more closely the solitary her- 
mit's life. This form of asceticism spread into Greek lands, 
where, under Saint Basil, it took on an epoch-making form 
that has continued until our day. Gregory Nazianzen, in 
his panegyric on Basil (329-79), says: 

He reconciled most excellently and united the solitary and 
the community life. These had been in many respects at 
variance and dissension. He founded cells for hermits, but at 
no great distance from his cenobitic communities. 2 

Basil believed that the monastic life was superior to 
the hermitage. His monks lived under a common rule, 
ate at a common table, were engaged in the same labors 
and philanthropic ministries, and united in the same 
prayers. 



1 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Volume IV, page 196 ff., abridged. 
2 Ibid., Volume VII, page 415 f . 

242 



MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

Monastic Life Introduced Into Rome by Athanasius in 

339. — By the end of the fourth century there were nu- 
merous monasteries for men and women in Eome and 
throughout Italy. Highborn patrician ladies made it the 
vogue in western Europe. Paula, her widowed daughter, 
whose funeral car was followed by the nobility of Rome, 
and of whom Jerome declared, "In my writings she will 
never die," Eustochium, Mancella, and Sophronia are 
names of nuns recruited from families of position and 
wealth which live in Jerome's pages. "I had the joy," 
writes Jerome to Principia, a nun of Eome, "of seeing 
Eome transformed into another Jerusalem. Monastic es- 
tablishments for virgins became numerous, and of hermits 
there were countless numbers." 

Monasticism Spreads. — Augustine introduced the monas- 
tery into Africa, and during the fourth century monasti- 
cism became widely established in Gaul. Saint Martin, of 
Tours, is the foremost of these early founders. At Poitiers, 
in 362, and at Tours, in 373, monasteries were organized by 
him. From Gaul monks traveled to Ireland and thence 
to England and Scotland ; and from Ireland the movement 
swept back with new force into Gaul under Columbanus 
and his followers. 

The Benedictine Eule 

Benedict. — After Basil, Benedict is the next great name 
in monastic history. Born of a noble Umbrian family near 
Spoleto in 480, he was sent to Eome to be educated. Ee- 
coiling from the city's licentiousness, he withdrew from 
the world and became a monk. Three years were passed 
in solitude near Subiaco. Disciples flocked to him here in 
such numbers that he established a monastery. Later he 
migrated to Monte Cassino, in which monastery his Eule 
was developed. This was to govern monastic life for more 
than seven centuries. Previous to Benedict the monastic 
life never had been sharply defined and regulated by pre- 
cise vows and detailed rules. Often to assume the monas- 
tic habit was quite sufficient to set one apart for the monas- 

243 



APOSTLES, FATHEBS, AND BEFOBMEES 

tic life. It was Benedict's mission to formulate a prac- 
tical code for the life within the monastery. 

The Benedictine Rule. — The monks rose early, usually at 
two o'clock, and repaired to the church for what was called 
the night office, which consisted of fourteen psalms and 
certain other Scriptures chanted throughout. This service 
lasted from an hour to an hour and a half. Then followed 
a period, brief in summer, longer in winter, devoted to 
private reading of Scripture or prayer. Lauds, a chanted 
service in the church, were celebrated at dawn ; and Prime, 
similarly constituted, at sunrise. Each of these required a 
half hour. The monks then turned to manual labor. Each 
monastery had its gardens, fields, mills, bakery, and various 
shops. It was designed to supply its own wants. Dinner 
was eaten sometimes at twelve, sometimes at three. The 
remainder of the canonical hours of prayer, consisting of 
brief chanted services — Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and 
Complin, — were distributed through the afternoon and 
ended at twilight. Vespers, in summer, were followed by 
supper, and all retired to rest before there was need of 
lighted candles. In this schedule about four and one half 
hours were devoted to the daily chanting of the church serv- 
ices. This was preeminently the "work of God"; but the 
six or seven hours given to manual labor were also a real 
service of worship. To labor was to pray. From three 
to five hours were spent in daily reading of the Bible and 
the church Fathers. 

The Object and Government of the Monastery. — The 
monks were bound to the monastery where they took their 
vows, and they were obligated for life. The aim of Benedict 
was to train men into saintly living ; not to raise up priests, 
missionaries, and educators. The monastery in some par- 
ticulars was a democratic community: it was governed 
by an abbot, who was elected for life by the suffrage of all 
the monks. Other officials were appointed by the abbot and 
held office according to his will. The abbot was required 
to counsel with his monks, but all decisions were made by 
him and the others were bound to obey. 

Benedictine Influence. — The Benedictine Eule was in- 

244 



MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

troduced by Augustine in England and was spread by Boni- 
face through Frankland and established in his missions 
among the pagan Germans. In time it supplanted all other 
conceptions of the cenobitic life throughout the region of 
papal influence. It must be kept in mind that there was 
no Benedictine order. Monks were under the authority of 
their own abbots only. No monastery exercised jurisdiction 
over any other. The Benedictine Eule was adopted by 
the several convents because it best expressed the monk- 
ish ideal. The monks of this period of Benedictine influ- 
ence, until the rise of the religious orders, were laymen. 
Under the Benedictine Eule only sufficient monks were 
ordained to conduct the church services. The abbots them- 
selves were not usually priests. 

Keligious Ordeks 

Reformed Benedictines. — By the tenth century many 
abuses crept into the monasteries, and monks and nuns 
were not always living up to the Benedictine ideal. The 
spirit of reform was the opportunity for the rise of religious 
orders. 

(a) Cluny was the first of these. — The order takes its 
name from the monastery established at the French village 
of Cluny in 910. During the next two centuries, under the 
leadership of its abbots, who were men of character and 
ability, Cluny, both by building new monasteries and by 
persuading others to accept its leadership, extended its 
sway until more than three hundred monastic establish- 
ments became subject to Cluny. The abbot of Cluny was 
the sovereign of all the monks within these subject con- 
vents; he appointed all the various priors; every member 
of the order had to spend some years at Cluny; and the 
abbot also appointed his successor. This order, especially 
in its abbots, wielded great influence and power. The 
abbey church at Cluny, until Saint Peter's at Eome was 
completed, was the largest Christian church in Europe. 
The order itself was the greatest religious force in the 
Latin church of two centuries. The internal reforms, if 
they may be considered such, consisted in the abandonment 

245 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

of manual labor and the lengthening of the church services 
until they occupied nearly the whole day. 

(b) The Cistercians. — In 1098 a monastery was founded 
at Citeaux, whose monks began to live strictly in accord 
with the Benedictine Eule. Within a few years this monas- 
tery, with its dependencies, rivaled Cluny in its influence 
and in course of time supplanted the laxer order. 
The Cistercians reached their greatest power during the 
fifteenth century, when they numbered about 750 convents. 
In government each monastery was under its own abbot, 
as the Benedictine Rule provided. But the abbot of Citeaux 
was accorded inquisitorial rights in all monasteries, and 
the abbots of all the convents of the order assembled in 
annual chapter at Citeaux, to whose authority all estab- 
lishments were subject. The Cistercians reinstated the 
strict Benedictine Eule. Manual labor, which Cluny had 
discarded, was established rigorously. The Cistercians be- 
came the great farmers of the twelfth and thirteenth centu- 
ries. They were expert sheep, cattle, and horse breeders, 
and contributed largely to the commercial progress of 
Western Europe. Their operations became so vast that lay 
brothers, who did not participate in the chanting of the 
offices, were enrolled in the order. To them fell the chief 
labors of the fields and shops. At times there were as 
many as three hundred lay brothers in one abbey. 

(c) The Trappists. — In course of time the Cistercians 
relaxed their rules. But something in the strict monastic 
ideal never ceases to appeal to the world. In the Cistercian 
convent of La Trappe in France a stricter rule was estab- 
lished in the last quarter of the seventeenth century. 
Modeled after the early Cistercians, this order continues 
to the present day. Its members exist in many countries 
and possess more than half a hundred establishments. 

The Augustinian Canons a New Departure in Monastic 
Life. — In order to regulate better the life of priests in the 
eleventh century, in many places the clergy took the mo- 
nastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, and were 
organized into congregations. Their rule was drawn from 
the writings of Saint Augustine. The monastic life for 

246 



MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

them became the means through which they could better 
serve the churches and people as priests. The houses of the 
Augustinian canons became very numerous during the 
later Middle Ages. Most of them, however, did not sur- 
vive the Eeformation. 

The Mendicant Orders. — In the thirteenth century the 
centers of civilization began to shift from the feudal estates 
to the towns and cities. New intellectual, social, and 
political horizons opened. The growing commerce of the 
towns and the increasing importance of handicrafts and 
guilds were revealing and adding a new value to man. Per- 
haps the need of the poor in the towns, together with a 
new sense of their value, set men thinking again of the 
lowly ministry of Jesus. At any rate, the mendicant friars, 
modeling their lives upon that of the Nazarene, arose and 
went forth to minister to their age. 

(a) The Franciscans. — This religious fraternity arose in 
1209, with the decision of Francis of Assisi to leave his 
father's home and, in imitation of Jesus, devote himself to 
the care of the sick and the service of the poor. This ideal 
found many responsive hearts. At the time of Francis' 
death, twenty years later, at least fifty thousand men had 
assumed the Franciscan habit and lived the Franciscan life. 
Their ideal was poverty and service. They possessed no 
land, handled no money, accumulated no wealth. So far 
as possible they labored to supply themselves with food; 
when no chance was found to earn their daily food, they 
begged. The order spread into all lands and by the time 
of the Eeformation numbered at least 100,000. The Fran- 
ciscans have had a stormy history but they exist to-day, 
in three branches, to the number of 25,000. The Capu- 
chins, who have kept closest to the original ideal of poverty 
and the spiritual ministry of the poor, have more than 500 
monasteries and are to-day at work in nearly 200 mission 
stations. 

(b) The Dominicans. — This order was founded by Dom- 
inic, an Augustinian canon, at Osma, in Spain. Seeing the 
need of preaching to heretics, pagans, and the poor, Dominic 
organized his order of preaching friars in 1215. The friars 

247 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

"were bound by the Augustinian Eule. Like the Franciscans, 
they were to possess no income but were to live by charity 
and begging. Their only property was churches and their 
monasteries. But the Dominican Friars were bound to no 
individual house, but to the order. Their missions extended 
to the still pagan districts of Denmark, Poland, Prussia, 
and Eussia. They undertook also missions to China, Tibet, 
Mohammedan countries, Persia, India, and the Americas. 
They settled in university towns and became leading pro- 
fessors in the great medieval universities. They were the 
chief promoters of the Inquisition. They have to-day more 
than three hundred friaries. 

(c) The Carmelites. — At about the middle of the twelfth 
century eleven crusaders became hermits on Mount Carmel. 
A century later these hermits, who had increased in num- 
ber, were driven by the Moslem conquest of Palestine to 
Cyprus, from which place the order spread through western 
Europe. By this time the hermit life had given place to 
the cenobitical, and the order was organized on the men- 
dicant model. The order became popular and influential. 
They were known as "White Friars," from the white mantle 
worn over the dark brown garb. They still carry on mis- 
sions in South America, India, and Persia, and number 
some two thousand friars. 

(d) The Augustinian Hermits. — At about the middle of 
the thirteenth century the popes succeeded in uniting vari- 
ous groups of hermits of Italy into a religious order gov- 
erned by the Eule of Saint Augustine. It soon was 
modeled after the other mendicant orders and rapidly in- 
creased. At the threshold of the Eeformation these num- 
bered some two thousand friaries and thirty thousand 
monks. The order possesses more than a hundred houses 
in Europe and America. 

Military and Eedemptive Orders 

The Military Orders. — The crusades against the Moslems 
called for the two classes of orders here indicated. The 
Knights of Saint John developed out of a hospital for pil- 
grims in Jerusalem and about 1120 assumed military 

248 



MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

character. The Knights Templars began as a military 
order in 1119, and their first temple was the present El- 
Aksa Mosque in Jerusalem. The Teutonic Knights were 
constituted during the third crusade in 1198. These three 
orders followed the Augustinian Eule and were bound by 
the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. 
Their avowed object was to fight the battles of the cross in 
Moslem lands. 

The Orders of Ransom. — These were instituted to rescue 
Christian captives from Mohammedan lands. The Trin- 
itarians, founded in 1198, were chief of this type of reli- 
gious communities. They followed the rule of the Augus- 
tinian Canons. At one time they possessed eight hun- 
dred convents. Vast sums were raised to ransom captives ; 
but when money failed, the members of the order offered 
themselves in exchange for Christians held captive by the 
Moslems. The order still has several hundred members, 
who devote themselves to the ransom of Negro slaves. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Benefits of Monasticism. — There were, of course, vast 
abuses which cursed monastic life. The vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience frequently were transgressed. The 
church has much in these centuries for which it must 
blush with shame. But the monastic orders, like the creeds 
and the papacy, are the natural evolution of their times. 
It was a tumbled world through which Christianity was 
making its way from the fall of the Eoman Empire until 
the modern age dawned in the Eenaissance; and the bar- 
barous, superstitious greeds and lusts were not kept wholly 
without the Christian society. It is the glory of the monks 
that they were trying to save their souls. They kept alive 
the sense of the worth of the human spirit in a crass age. 
Multiplied thousands of men and women became of this 
mind. There were enrolled among them some of the most 
cultured, the most intellectual, the most human, and most 
devout men of their generations. Certain social invalids — 
the poor, the sinful, the exiled, the outraged, and the aged — 
sought these houses of refuge; but the vast majority of 

249 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

these men and women were recruited from the prosperous 
and the strong. To mention Benedict, Gregory the Great, 
Augustine of Hippo, Augustine of Canterbury, Colum- 
banus, Boniface, Bede, Alcuin, Lanfranc and Anselm of 
Bee, Hildebrand, Bernard, Prancis of Assisi, Dominic; the 
later Franciscans, Eoger Bacon, Bonaventura, Duns Sco- 
tus and Occam; the Dominicans, Thomas Aquinas and Sa- 
vonarola; the Carmelites, Saint Teresa and Juan of the 
Cross, and the Augustinian hermit, Martin Luther, is 
enough to lift monasticism into the respect of the world. 

Humanitarian and Other Contributions. — Incidentally, 
in saving their souls, the monks established the first hos- 
pitals and the first insane asylums (Valencia, Spain, 1409) ; 
became the librarians of their centuries; cleared thousands 
of acres of European wilds and laid them under cultivation ; 
built some of the finest and most-enduring edifices of their 
times ; taught the dignity of toil and the beauty of a well- 
ordered life; became the exemplary farmers of western 
Europe; introduced Sunday rest among the toilers of 
Europe; became the scholars and the physicians of their 
age ; were the final arbiters in many a quarrel of state ; were 
the bulwark in the wars against the infidel; and were the 
great missionaries of the church during many centuries. 

The Narrow Gate 

Christianity Ever Asks for Man's Supreme Devotion. — 

It challenges the last element of human loyalty and devo- 
tion. "If any man would come after me, ... let him 
take up his cross, and follow me" is the unbroken primary 
law of Christian discipleship. The monastic life was an 
attempt to follow Jesus. The great monastic leaders, espe- 
cially Francis and Dominic, held his ideal. Monasticism 
at its best was not cowardice but heroism. It was a brave 
effort to enter in by the narrow gate. No one ever really 
entered into the Kingdom except by the narrow gate of 
much renunciation. Mission lands are praying for hospi- 
tals, schools, and churches. Our cities are teeming with 
evils whose tragedies implore the fortunate to dedicate their 

250 



MONASTIC IDEAL OF THE KINGDOM 

possessions to the advancement of the common welfare. 
Perhaps you should rededicate yourself to that which ever 
is the crying need and begging opportunity of Christian 
discipleship: the presenting in private conversation the 
claims of Christ upon the thought, love, and action of your 
nearest fellow men. 

God Wants You to Hazard Something for Jesus Christ. 
— If you shirk all the heroic tasks of the world, who will 
not brand you through all eternity as a skulking coward? 
To the end of God's day a penalty remains for those who, 
having it in them to be heroes, choose instead to remain in 
the crowd for whom the heroes fight and die. To say that 
our sympathies lie with Jesus is not enough to number us 
among his disciples; real discipleship is measured by the 
sacrifices we make on his behalf. If you do not feel your 
discipleship a living thing with you, it is because you have 
carried no cross and gone to no Calvary for Christ. 
Let us stop trying to be respectable Christians; let us be 
useful Christians. The soul absorbed in the cares or pleas- 
ures of this world is twice housed in clay. We are natural 
only when we look at the stars and think of God and give 
ourselves with the most-exacting devotion to the cause of 
Christ. 

Lavish Love. — Love that does not count the cost is the 
only power that cannot be pushed from its throne. It was 
the uncalculating love of Jesus which made him the world's 
Christ. It is the lavish outpouring of love in Francis of 
Assisi which gave his movement the freshness and the 
beauty of early Christianity and which endears him to every 
brother of Jesus Christ. Jesus cares little for our applause ; 
he is waiting for our sacrificial love. It signifies little that 
a Christian nation opens a market in the Congo; it must 
open its heart there too. A pauperized community is indif- 
ferent to a social survey; it flares with hope at even one 
brave, strong woman's self-sacrificing Christian love. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. When and where did monasticism get its start? 

2. What was the character of early monasticism? 

251 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

3. Who was Benedict and what was the nature of his 
"Rule"? 

4. Discuss the government of the monastery. 

5. State some of the abuses which developed in the monas- 
teries and nunneries. 

6. How did the religious orders go about effecting a 
reform? 

7. Discuss Cluny; the Cistercians; the Trappists. 

8. In what sense were the Augustinian Canons a new 
departure in monastic life? 

9. What were the character and influence of the Franciscans, 
the Dominicans, the Carmelites, and the Augustinian hermits? 

10. What was the object of the military orders? 

11. Discuss the work done by the "orders of ransom." 

12. What spiritual contribution did the monks make to the 
Kingdom in their day? 

13. In what sense were the hospitals, insane asylums, etc., 
an evidence of the Kingdom's progress? 

14. State the value of the spirit of renunciation for Chris- 
tians of every time. 

Selected Headings 

Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I, Chapter XVIII. 

Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, 
Dill, pages 180-86. 

Studies in Mystical Religion, Jones, Chapter IX. 

The Latin Church in the Middle Ages, Lagarde, page 83- 
125. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 136-40; 
218-25; 245-48; 254-61. 

Source Book for Ancient Church History, Ayer, pages 630-44. 

History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, Lea, Volume I, pages 101- 
29; 451-58. 



252 



CHAPTEE XX 

CBUSADING FOE THE KINGDOM 

From 1100 to 1500 the Eoman Catholic Church sought 
to extend its interests and what it considered the interests 
of the kingdom of God by a prolonged series of holy wars. 
There was scarcely a year during these four centuries 
when there was not sounded somewhere from Portugal to 
Palestine the call to take up arms in behalf of Chris- 
tianity. These wars in behalf of the Cross are called 
crusades. It is the purpose of this chapter to indicate the 
rise of this military conception of the Kingdom, to outline 
the object of the crusades, and to estimate their religious 
significance. 

The Church of the Crusades 

A Military Society. — From the time of the barbarian 
invasions until the rise of modern nations the church lived 
in the midst of continuous wars between petty kingdoms. 
Feudalism was an armed society and instilled into every 
aspiring youth the beauty and the honor of war. Church 
positions came to be filled with men of warlike minds and 
training. Bishops, archbishops, and abbots, through their 
proprietorship of lands, were part of the feudal system and 
therefore stood ready to ride at the head of their armed 
retainers. The church attempted to regulate the fighting 
spirit of these centuries but often in vain. The "Truce of 
God" proclaimed by the church often was broken. The call 
to arms against heretic and infidel fell in with the spirit 
of the Middle Ages. The church now sanctioned what it 
had endeavored to minify and control. The knight could 
win his way to heaven through a path of blood. 

A Religious Society. — The preceding chapter has indi- 
cated that the tenth and eleventh centuries experienced a 
great religious revival in the Cluniac and Cistercian re- 

253 



APOSTLES, EATHEKS, AND EEFOEMERS 

forms. This religious awakening moved in two directions : 
The church was to become dominant on earth, and the path 
to heaven lay through a stern, ascetic life. The crusades, 
religiously, were the outcome of these monastic reforms. 
They expressed the passion for a world-conquering Chris- 
tianity and they utilized the ascetic ideal, in the hardships 
borne by the crusaders, to reach the positive goal of giving 
the church a universal empire. 

Pilgrimages. — The religious quickening of the eleventh 
century expressed itself not only in new monastic establish- 
ments for the religious but also in pilgrimages to various sa- 
cred places, especially for the laity. Pilgrimages were the ex- 
pression of at least two religious ideas : The labor and sacri- 
fice involved were a form of asceticism and, therefore, a 
spiritual work; to pray in a sacred place was the way to 
bring oneself more immediately into contact with the spirit- 
ual powers. The church fostered the desire for pilgrimage 
by imposing it as .a penance. There were many places of pil- 
grimage. Very slight objects made a chapel or a shrine the 
object of adoration. Wilsnach, in East Prussia, possessed a 
sacramental wafer that was declared to have preserved a 
church from being destroyed by fire and at certain times to 
exude the blood of Christ. The town early became a place 
of pilgrimage. Pilgrimages did not cease with the crusades 
but have continued to this day both in the Greek and Latin 
churches. 

Pilgrimages to Jerusalem. — Pilgrimages to Jerusalem 
began in the second century. By 333 there were enough pil- 
grimages to the Holy Land to warrant the publication of a 
guidebook to Palestine. In the first half of the eleventh 
century the impulse to journey to Jerusalem seized vast 
multitudes. The movement began among the humble but 
spread to the well-to-do, nobles, and kings. Even women 
undertook the pilgrimage. In 1064 seven thousand pil- 
grims, headed by the archbishop of Mainz, sought the sacred 
places of thi Holy Land. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem came 
to be required as a penance for great sins. Eobert le 
Diable, of Normandy, who had poisoned his brother, was 
promised remission of sins through his undertaking to go 

254 



CRUSADING FOE THE KINGDOM 

barefooted to Jerusalem. Cure of disease and remission of 
sins were the leading motives of these journeys. Peter the 
Venerable in 1145 said that if Antioch fell to the Saracens, 
the road to Jerusalem would be lost through which innu- 
merable thousands had escaped hell and gained heaven. 

Indulgences. — In connection with the pilgrimages there 
was coming into vogue the substitution of some pious work 
for a part or the whole of the penance prescribed by a priest 
in the confessional. The fatigues endured in the pilgrim- 
age entitled the penitent to some diminution of the pen- 
ance. Pope Urban II, at the Council of Clermont in 1095, 
to quicken interest in the crusade to the Holy Land, decreed 
that those who took the cross should be freed from all pen- 
ance incurred by those who confessed their sins. This is 
the first example of what is called plenary indulgence. 
This became the established rule in all crusades. Bernard 
in his preaching promised full pardon to all who set out for 
Palestine. He declared that God summoned men to the 
holy war that he might thus bring them to eternal glory. 
Later similar indulgences were granted to those who pro- 
vided substitutes in the wars against the Moslem. Crusaders 
came also to be released from earthly as well as heavenly 
justice. By taking the cross they were removed from the 
ranks of the laity and the jurisdiction of the secular courts. 
The punishment imposed by the courts of the church were 
notoriously lax, and many a criminal took the cross to es- 
cape the consequences of his ill deeds. The nefarious prac- 
tices of later popes and bishops to fill their coffers through 
the sale of indulgences were a primary cause of the 
Reformation. 

Other Causes. — Many other causes played their part in 
this uprising of the West against the East. The popes were 
anxious to extend their authority over the Greek Church 
and to suppress the Moslem. The spirit of adventure ap- 
pealed to many knights. Princes were anxious to set up 
states in the East. Many of the oppressed were eager to 
chance the winning of a better fortune. Genoa and Venice 
encouraged the crusades in order to extend their shipping 
interests in the East. The first crusade was largely precipi- 

255 



APOSTLES, FATHEBS, AND REFOKMEKS 

tated by the appeal of Alexius I, the Greek emperor at 
Constantinople, to the pope for help to check the Moslem 
advance in Asia Minor. 

Crusades Against the Moslems 

Some Results of the Crusades. — While it is customary 
to speak of seven crusades, it must be remembered that, be- 
ginning in 1097, when the armed division of the first cru- 
sade crossed into Asia Minor, and continuing two centuries, 
scarcely a year passed that warriors from the West did not 
pass to the East to battle with the infidel. These first cru- 
sades established four Latin states in the East — Edessa, 
Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem. The Latin kingdom of 
Jerusalem was instituted in 1100 and continued until 
1187. From 1187 to 1229 the Christians were shut out of 
Jerusalem. In 1229 they were granted pilgrim rights in 
the Holy City, but this privilege ceased in 1244, when Jeru- 
salem was occupied by the Turks. 

Taking the Cross. — The following extract taken from 
The Deeds of God Wrought by the French, written by 
Guilbert of Nogent, who was present at Clermont when 
Pope Urban preached the first crusade, indicates the spirit 
that made the crusades possible : 

The most excellent man [Urban II] concluded his ora- 
tion and by the power of the blessed Peter absolved all who 
had taken the vow to go and by the same apostolic authority 
confirmed it; and he instituted a sign of this so honorable 
vow; and as a badge of soldiering or knighthood — or, rather, 
of being about to soldier for God — he took the mark of the 
Lord's passion, the figure of a cross, made from material 
of any kind of cloth and ordered it to be sown upon the tunics 
of those about to go. But if anyone after receiving this sign 
or after making open promise should draw back from that 
good intent by base repenting or through affection for his 
kin, he ordained that he should be held an outlaw utterly 
and perpetually unless he turned and set himself again to the 
neglected performance of his pledge. Furthermore, with 
terrible anathema he damned all who within the term of 
three years should dare to do ill to the wives, children, or 
property of those setting forth on their journey of God. 1 

1 From The Medieval Mind, by Taylor, Volume II, page 176, through the 
courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 

256 



CEUSADING FOR THE KINGDOM 

The Religious Zeal. — Geoffroi de Villehardouin, who 
took a prominent part in the fourth crusade, which, by 
unforeseen circumstances, was turned aside from Palestine 
to attack the Greek Empire at Constantinople, has given us 
pictures of the religious zeal that inaugurated and sustained 
the call to arms : 

Be it known to you that eleven hundred and ninety-seven 
years after the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ there 
was in France a holy man named Fulk of Neuilly — which 
Neuilly is between Lagnisur-Marne and Paris — and he was 
priest and held the cure of the village. And this said Fulk 
began to speak of God throughout the isle of France and 
the other countries round about; and you must know that 
by him the Lord wrought many miracles. Be it known to 
you further that the fame of this holy man spread, that it 
reached the pope of Rome, Innocent III. The pope sent to 
France and ordered the right worthy man to preach the 
cross by his authority. Afterward the pope sent a cardinal 
of his, Master Peter of Capua, who himself had taken the 
cross, to proclaim the indulgence of which I now tell you, 
viz.: that all who should take the cross and serve in the host 
for one year would be delivered from all sins they had com- 
mitted and acknowledged in confession. And because this 
indulgence was so great, the hearts of men were much 
moved, and many took the cross for the greatness of the 
pardon. 3 

The Cruelty of Religious Fervor. — The crusades against 
the Moslems exhibit scenes of purest chivalry on the part of 
both Saracen and Christian; but they are marred often 
by broken treaties and horrible butcheries in the name of 
religion. The crusaders usually acted on the principle that 
faith need not be kept with an infidel. It is estimated 
that seventy thousand Moslems and Jews, including men, 
women, and children, were killed or tortured to death 
by the victorious crusaders in the taking of Jerusalem. 
When the city was at rest from slaughter, the crusaders 
repaired to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Raymond 
of Agiles, a French priest and an eyewitness, writes : 

When the city was taken, it was worth the whole long labor 
to witness the devotion of the pilgrims to the sepulcher of 
the Lord, how they clapped their hands, exulted, and 

2 Memoirs of the Crusades, Everyman's Library, page 1 f. 

257 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

sang a new song unto the Lord. For their hearts presented 
to God, victor and triumphant, vows of praise which they 
were unable to explain. A new day, new joy and exultation, 
new and perpetual gladness, the consummation of toil and 
devotion, drew forth from all new words, new songs. This 
day, I say, glorious in every age to come, turned all our 
griefs and toils into joy and exultation. 3 

Crusades Against the Christians 

Wars Instigated by the Popes. — For several centuries the 
Roman papacy was committed to the policy of advancing 
its temporal interests and securing the unity of the church 
through the authorization of religious wars against its 
political enemies and heretics. For nearly two centuries 
there was scarcely a year that some part of European Chris- 
tianity was not the object of armed attack instigated by the 
popes and the more powerful bishops. Men were constantly 
being slaughtered in the name of Christ, that his gospel 
might prevail. 

Crusades Against Heretics. — The church of the Middle 
Ages strove to put down every departure from the existent 
practice, beliefs, or authority of the church. No means 
were too cruel, no injustice too flagrant, to be used. The 
first crusade against heretics was proclaimed against the 
Cathari of southern France in 1179. Two years' indul- 
gence was promised to all who took up arms in the holy 
cause; those who fell were assured of eternal salvation. 
Beginning in 1209 there was one long crusade against the 
Albigenses of the County of Toulouse, continuing for 
twenty years. An indulgence, the equivalent of the pro- 
longed and hazardous crusade to Palestine, was granted for 
forty days campaigning in Toulouse. The result was a 
pitifully impoverished and subjected province of France. 
Bosnia was laid waste in 1234 by fire and sword by 
crusaders against the Cathari. The Stedingers, a 
peasant people of the marshes of the Weser, strug- 
gling against the oppressions of church and state, were 
cruelly exterminated in 1230-34. A half dozen crusades 

3 From The Medieval Mind, by Taylor, Volume I, page 536, through the 
courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 

258 



CEUSADING FOE THE KINGDOM 

were launched against the Hussites of Bohemia from 1420 
to 1431. The land was kept in civil war, and slaughter 
and cruelty marked the church's efforts to restrain liberty 
of religious thought. 

Crusades to Increase Papal Power. — Crusades against 
heretics might be justified by prevailing medieval thought ; 
those launched to augment the glory of the pope as a tem- 
poral prince could have no justification. Such were the 
shameful crusades of Innocent IV against Tuscany and 
Lombardy in 1253. Holy-Land indulgences were granted 
to the crusaders, and possessors of stolen property were 
absolved if the value of the property was devoted to the fur- 
therance of the crusade. Similar crusades devastated 
Viterbo in 1238, Padua in 1256, Naples in 1266, Venice in 
1309, and Milan in 1320. Other crusades were let loose 
against Frederic II in 1241, whom the pope had deposed 
from the Eoman emperorship; against Aix-la-Chapelle in 
1248, that William of Holland might be properly coronated 
in this city in the stead of Frederic II ; and against Aragon 
in 1284 to enable Charles of Anjou to obtain the king- 
dom of Naples. All these crusades and many more were 
supported by the most lavish indulgences. 

The Military Keligious Orders 

The Crusades Gave Birth to the Religious Military 
Orders. — They carried to its last meaning that one's soul 
might be saved in fighting the battles of the cross. The 
Knights Templars, founded in 1118, are the most famous 
of these military orders. Bound by the usual monastic 
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, they devoted them- 
selves to keeping the pilgrim roads open to Jerusalem. 
The fame of this order spread rapidly over Europe and 
drew into it knights of the noblest blood. The order was 
favored by the popes, and its wealth rapidly increased. 
Towns and villages, churches and manors, in every country 
in Europe were given the Templars; and it was undoubt- 
edly due to their wealth and their knights' constantly 
resorting to the Holy Land that the crusaders in the East 
held their place so long against the Moslems. The dissolu- 

259 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND REFOKMEKS 

tion of the order is the great crime of the church of the 
Middle Ages. 

Summary: The Coming Kingdom 

Wars of God and the System of Indulgences. — This les- 
son is intended not to present a history of the crusades 
but to indicate their religious significance. Many mingled 
motives promoted the crusades. But, above all, they were 
fostered by the papacy and accepted by the people as wars of 
God. The popes aimed at an extension of their empire, and 
the crusaders sought salvation in fighting for the cross. 
These holy wars developed the system of indulgences to 
such an obnoxious extent that the Reformation may be 
regarded as the inevitable sequence of the crusades. 

Culture, Civilization, and Christianity Cannot Be Prop- 
agated by War. — Then, too, the crusades settled, for all 
who peruse history, that culture, civilization, and Chris- 
tianity cannot be propagated by war. No genuine conver- 
sion to higher civilization can be forced upon a people by 
the sword. Unfortunately men and nations learn this 
lesson slowly. In the Great War the old crusader spirit 
was revived. It failed in Syria six and seven centuries ago ; 
it will fail in China and in Africa to-day. Christianity 
can win not by glittering bayonet but by the extended, open 
hand. Christianity is just and righteous comradeship or it 
is nothing. The crusades mark the turning point in the 
departure from the Sermon on the Mount. Henceforth all 
Kingdom movements will be a return to Jesus of Nazareth. 

Wars or God 

Taking the Cross. — The supreme motive of the attempts 
to recover the Holy Sepulcher was the conviction that a war 
against the Moslem was a war of God. When Bernard 
preached the second crusade in France and Germany he 
summoned men to purity of life and loyalty to God. At 
Toulouse, Basle, Constance, Frankfurt, and Cologne, wher- 
ever he appeared to the vast audiences that listened to his 
impassioned plea, Bernard proclaimed repentance and con- 
fession as conditions of joining the crusade; and multitudes, 

260 



CEUSADING FOE THE KINGDOM 

living in all manner of sin, held up their quivering palms to 
promise that, through confession and penance, they would 
enter into holy lives. Every red cross sewn upon the gar- 
ment of a crusader indicated that he had entered into a new 
life with God and was accepted as his warrior across the 
sea. 

Crusading for God. — Life ever rises to its noblest when 
it is solemnly dedicated to battle for God. God's battles 
never yet have been fully fought. The crusading spirit 
cannot be lost ouf of life without disaster. There are great 
hindrances in the way of Christian triumph, which call for 
the purest, sternest Christian knighthood. Sometimes these 
battlefields of cross and crescent are in one's own soul. 
Far too often are Christian hearts the dark abodes of pride, 
greed, sensuality: selfishness in some ghoulish form that 
blackens life. The foul fiends are not easily routed. In 
the spirit of the crusader who abandons all for the greater 
glory of conquest across the sea we must learn to leave 
all the old life in order to live in fullness the life of Christ. 

Religious Fervor and Inhumanity. — The crusaders for 
centuries demonstrated that inhumanity can flourish in the 
richest soil of religious feeling. Such marriage of ideas 
was impossible in the soul of Jesus. It must be impossible 
in us, or else our living will not contribute much to the 
coming of the Kingdom. Eeligious fervor must be tested 
by the sympathy and the justice it prompts. In all our 
crusades against the world's evils the soldiers of Christ 
must show no bitterness of spirit, no inhumanity toward the 
foe. Personal enmities disgrace those who fight the battles 
of God. Nor must a personal enmity be dignified by call- 
ing it a crusade. 

The Holy Sepulcher. — The crusaders fought the Moslem 
that they might weep where Christ died and rejoice where 
he rose again. Beneath all the passion of that sinful age 
there was a desire for fellowship with their Eedeemer. The 
evils of the world which summon us to join God's hosts to 
put them down must not darken our longing to live near 
ihe Captain of our salvation. Eager to do the work of 
God, we must not forget the companionship of God. Social 

261 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOKMEKS 

service that neglects social fellowship with our heavenly 
Father eventually drains the fountain of the noble impulses 
that prompted the heroic service. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. How came the church of the crusades to think their wars 
those of God? 

2. Discuss the value of asceticism, relics, pilgrimages, in- 
dulgences. 

3. To what extent was the medieval feeling that some hard 
task should be undertaken by the penitent correct? 

4. State some of the material results of the crusades. 

5. What excuse can be offered for the wanton slaughter 
of Moslem and Jewish men, women, and children by the cru- 
saders? 

6. What object had the popes in instigating wars against 
other Christians? 

7. What constituted a heretic in the estimation of the 
church authorities? 

8. Against what groups of "heretics" were crusades di- 
rected? 

9. Discuss the relationship of the crusades to the origin 
of religious military orders. 

10. How far were the ideals of these orders in accord with 
the teachings of Jesus Christ? 

11. To what extent was the Reformation the inevitable 
sequence of the crusades? 

12. Discuss the value of war as a propagator of culture, 
civilization, and Christianity. 

Suggested Eeadings 

Count Robert of Paris and The Talisman, Scott. 

Via Cruris, Crawford, a story of the second crusade. 

God Wills It, Davis, a story of the crusades. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 238-45. 

The Medieval Mind, Taylor, Volume II, pages 535-49. 

The Latin Church of the Middle Ages, Lagarde, pages 481- 
94. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume V, pages 
211-305. 

History of Indulgences, Lea, Volume III, pages 152-62. 



262 



CHAPTEE XXI 

DAYBEEAK IN DIFFEBENT LANDS 

The Eeformation was not an unheralded break with 
the medieval church. Parallel with the development of 
papal autocracy and priestly corruption arose protesting 
voices against the existing church, which in course of time 
were strong enough to lead a revolt against the Eoman 
system. This chapter sets forth the outstanding features 
of the pre-Beformation church and the labors and influence 
of certain forerunners of Luther. 

The Church of the Middle Ages 

The Conception of the Church. — The church, in the days 
of Wycliffe and Huss, in the minds of the populace con- 
sisted of the pope and the cardinals. For the more thought- 
ful the church was the visible organization of the faith- 
ful ruled by the pope and his hierarchy and cardinals, 
bishops, and priests. This papal kingdom was as well de- 
fined as the realm of England, and its ruling body was a 
self-perpetuating aristocracy. Wycliffe, calling those her- 
etics who hold this view of the church, says, "These heretics 
understand by the church the pope of Borne and his car- 
dinals, and the multitude of worldly clerks (priests) assent- 
ing to his simony and worldly lordship above all kings and 
emperors of this world." In 1302 Pope Boniface VIII thus 
stated his conception of the church : 

We are obliged to believe and hold that there is one holy 
catholic and apostolic church; outside of her there is no 
salvation or remission of sins. That in her and within her 
power are two swords, we are taught in the Gospels — the 
spiritual sword and the temporal sword. Both are in the 
power of the church: the latter to be used for the church, the 
former by the church: the former by the priest, the latter by 
princes and kings but at the nod and sufferance of the priest. 

263 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

This authority, although it be given to man and though it be 
exercised by a man, is not a human but a divine power, given 
by divine word of mouth to Peter and confirmed to Peter and 
to his successors by Christ himself. Furthermore, that every 
human creature is subject to the Roman pontiff — this we de- 
clare, say, define, and pronounce to be altogether necessary to 
salvation. 1 

The Worldly Lives of the Clergy. — The laity were bound 
to the church by obedience and by observance of the sacra- 
ments. Since the theory of the church held that priests 
were such by virtue of their ordination and not by the 
intellectual worth and moral purity of their lives, the most 
licentious living was compatible with the priestly office. 

The Dominican Friars in England in the days of Wy- 
cliffe aroused by their idleness and profligacy the deepest 
antagonism among the people. John Foxe, in his Booh of 
Martyrs, preserves "The Ploughman's Complaint," written 
anonymously about 1360. The taking of vows of celibacy 
by the priests and their indulging in immorality were the 
cause of the severest accusations and denunciation, espe- 
cially as they gave encouragement to the people to follow 
the example of the priests. 

The Friars were the object of severe attacks by Wy- 
cliffe. He charges them with hypocrisy, pretending pov- 
erty, and soliciting alms that ought to go to the poor. Wy- 
cliffe also insists that the Friars, by their cheap pardons, 
are ruining the moral life of the people : 

Friars also be worse enemies and slayers of men's souls 
than is the cruel fiend of hell himself. For love of a little 
stinking muck they spare to reprove the cursed sin of the 
people. For commonly, if there be any cursed juror, extor- 
tioner, or adulterer, he will not be shriven at his own curate 
but go to a flattering Friar that will absolve him falsely for a 
little money, by year, though he be not in will to make resti- 
tution and leave his cursed sin. 

The Papal Schism. — The refusal of Urban VI, elected to 
the papacy in 1378, to remove the papal court to Avignon, 
in France, resulted in the election of Clement VII. The 

1 The full text of this bull is given by Schaff in A History of the Christian Church, 
Volume V, 2, page 25f. 

264 



DAYBEEAK IN DIFFEEENT LANDS 

Western church, torn by papal dissension for nearly a gen- 
eration, was compelled to submit to the indecent spectacle 
of two men claiming the seat of Saint Peter and each un- 
worthy of his vicarage by the foulness of his life. Petrarch, 
who lived for some time at Avignon and who knew inti- 
mately the life of the papal court, declares that the greatest 
crimes were rife in the households of the highest digni- 
taries of the church. Although his testimony is trust- 
worthy, it is difficult to conceive the shameful sordidness 
and sensuality of the lives of those who claimed to be the 
representatives of Christ. 

The Council of Constance, 1414-15. — At this council, 
where the writings of Wycliffe were condemned, and his 
bones ordered dug up and burned, and where Huss was 
burned, the evil lives of the clergy were openly known. The 
town council stocked the pope's cellar with sixteen casks 
of good wine. Tournaments, dances, acrobatic shows, and 
processions entertained the clerical visitors. Seven hun- 
dred prostitutes openly practiced their trade in rented 
rooms. It was a common saying among the Swiss that a 
generation would not suffice to clean Constance from the 
sins committed by the council during its session in the 
city. 

A letter from Huss to his Bohemian friends 2 thus 
speaks of the council and the forced resignation of Pope 
John XXIII: 

Consider that they have judged their head, their pope, 
worthy of death for many horrible acts that he had done. I 
would that in that Council God had said: "He that amongst 
you is without sin, let him give the sentence against Pope 
John": then surely they had all gone out of the council house 
one after another. Why did they bow the knee to him before 
his fall, kiss his feet, and call him "The most holy father," 
seeing they saw apparently before that he was a heretic, that 
he was a man-killer, that he was a wicked sinner, all which 
things now they have found in him? 

Huss is not too severe. In deposing John XXIII the 
Council of Constance accused him of incest, adultery, de- 

2 Book of Martyrs, Foxe. 

265 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND KEFOKMEKS 

filement, homicide, and atheism, of all of which crimes 
the pope confessed himself guilty. Yet Pope Martin V 
created him Dean of the Sacred College. 

Forerunners of the Eeformation 

The Character of the Revolt. — The Eeformation was a 
political, intellectual, and moral revolt from the tyranny of 
the medieval church over the souls .and bodies of men. The 
successors of Luther and his colaborers were the greater 
because other bold men had made similar or partial at- 
tempts to inaugurate liberty of conscience and a supremacy 
of the Scriptures above the decisions of popes. Chief 
among these heralds of the Eeformation were the Walden- 
sians, the Lollards, and the Hussites. 

The Waldensians 

The Origin of the Waldensians. — Peter Waldo, in the 
latter half of the twelfth century, a rich merchant of Lyons, 
eager to become a true Christian, secured a copy of the 
Scriptures in the French language of his day. His study 
convinced him that nowhere was the Christian life that had 
been commanded by Christ being lived. Selling his prop- 
erty and providing for his family, he set forth to preach 
the gospel of the New Testament. Men listened to him on 
the streets, in the fields, and by the roadside. He made 
disciples among both men and women. These he sent forth 
as missionaries, who, because the clergy had ceased to 
preach, found eager listeners everywhere. 

The Persecution of Waldo's Disciples. — These Poor Men 
of Lyons, as they called themselves, in appealing to the 
Scriptures and in denouncing the sins of the clergy awak- 
ened the hostility of the church authorities. By 1190 they 
taught that Christians need not recognize the authority of 
the pope; laymen, even women, may preach; God is to be 
obeyed rather than man ; masses, prayers, and alms for the 
dead avail nothing ; prayer in bed, in a stable, or anywhere 
might be substituted for prayer in church; everyone who 
led an apostolic life was the successor of the apostles, and, 
therefore, righteous laymen could exercise all the functions 

266 



DAYBREAK IN DIFFERENT LANDS 

of the priesthood. The Waldensians soon were regarded as 
dangerous heretics and became subjects for the Inquisition. 
Yet in spite of much persecution they multiplied. They 
appear in Strassburg in 1212, in Cologne in 1392, in north- 
ern Italy during the early thirteenth century, in Pomer- 
ania in 1394, and in Bohemia by the middle of the thir- 
teenth century. 

The Purity of Their Lives. — The religious teachings of 
the Waldensians emphasized the moral life. Their lives 
were in sharpest contrast with the orthodox church. A 
member of the Inquisition who knew them well says : 

They take no pride in their garments, which are neither 
costly nor vile. They do not engage in trade, to avoid lies 
and oaths and frauds, hut live by their labor as mechanics — 
their teachers are cobblers. They do not accumulate wealth 
but are content with necessaries. They are chaste and tem- 
perate in meat and drink. They do not frequent taverns or 
dances or other vanities. They restrain themselves from 
anger. They are always at work: they teach and learn and 
consequently pray but little. They are to be known by their 
modesty and precision of speech, avoiding scurrility and de- 
traction and light words and lies and oaths. 3 

The Forerunners of Huss in Bohemia. — Early in the four- 
teenth century the Waldensians had a thoroughly organ- 
ized church in Bohemia. Various efforts were made to 
suppress them, but Bohemia, with the establishment of its 
university at Prague, was in a tolerant mood toward reli- 
gious thought. When the papal indulgence was preached in 
Prague in 1393 and was publicly denounced, it seems likely 
that this boldness was the result of generations of Walden- 
sian preaching. Waldensian missionaries of Bohemia 
spread the sect into Brandenburg, Moravia, Austria, and 
Hungary. In 1408 Huss interceded for a Waldensian 
preacher before the Inquisition in Prague, and one of the 
charges against Huss at Constance was that he favored the 
Waldensians. After the death of Huss the Waldensians of 
Dauphine sent funds to the Hussites, whom they regarded 
as their brethren. Those of the Hussites who called them- 



3 From History of the Inquisition, by Lea, Volume I, page 85, through the 
courtesy of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 

267 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND KEFOEMEES 

selves Taborites conformed in most of their positions to the 
views of the Waldensians and, through the bitter persecu- 
tions that scattered them all, retained their close fra- 
ternalism. 

John Wycliffe 

The life and labors of Wycliffe.— John Wycliffe (1320- 
84) was the foremost of pre-Beformation leaders. Little is 
known of his early life. He was at Oxford University be- 
tween the years of 1356 and 1360, at which latter date he 
was elected Master of Balliol College. In 1372 he ob- 
tained the degree of doctor of divinity and became a lec- 
turer at Oxford. "He was/' writes John Foxe, "a famous 
divine, a deep schoolman, and expert in all kinds of philos- 
ophy." He was given the rectory of Lutterworth in 1374; 
and from here, in 1378, Wycliffe began sending forth his 
"poor priests," known as the Lollards after his death, to 
preach, after the manner of Wesley's itinerants, in the lan- 
guage of the people. Wycliffe wrote many tracts and ser- 
mons in English; and these, with the Bible, a translation 
of which he put into the hands of his followers, became a 
powerful influence in the reformation of the manners of his 
countrymen. 

The Teaching of Wycliffe. — Wycliffe began his career as 
a reformer in 1366 by asserting, in reply to a request from 
the king, that "England is not bound to pay tribute to the 
pope." His argument was that the kingdom's first duty is 
self-preservation ; and that to send moneys across the sea to 
a foreign prince weakens the state of England. Secondly, 
he argued that a pope has no claim upon the wealth of 
England except as alms to be used in works of mercy. But 
since all church property can be used for charity in Eng- 
land, there is neither need nor sense to send ecclesiastical 
donations out of the realm. In 1378, impelled by the 
abuses of the church and stirred by the papal schism, he 
attacked the foundations of the papacy. Popes are Anti- 
christ. Their evil lives, revealed in greed, lust, cruelty, 
and autocratic power, release all Christians from obedience. 
Papal excommunications fall harmless upon true Chris- 

268 



DAYBEEAK IN DIFFERENT LANDS 

tians. There is no Scriptural authority for any portion of 
the great papal scheme of empire. The holding of prop- 
erty has degraded the church; therefore, it should pass 
into the hands of the state. The clergy should be poor, 
not rich; industrious, not idle; pure in life, not an evil 
example to their people. They should preach the gospel, 
teach the people, and place the Scriptures in their hands. 
During the latter years of his life Wycliffe attacked the 
many abuses which the church had instituted to maintain 
its authority: worship of relics, pilgrimages, indulgences, 
auricular confession, invocation of saints, celibacy of the 
clergy, and the doctrine of transubstantiation. 

The Influence of Wycliffe. — Persecution gradually 
crushed the Lollards, as the followers of Wycliffe were 
called, but they were never extinguished. There was an 
unbroken succession of his disciples until they won their 
freedom at the Reformation, and both George Fox and John 
Wesley may be regarded as their spiritual heirs. There 
came to light in 1530 some tracts that sum up the popular 
message of the Lollards. The following sentences are 
typical : 

There is no work better than another to please God: to 
wash dishes and to preach is all one as touching the deed to 
please God. 

Every man is a priest, and we need no other priest to be 
a mediator. 

He that is rich may not use or spend his goods as he will; 
thy goods belong as well unto the poor as to thee. 

A man shall be reproved for no other thing at the Day of 
Judgment but for forgetting the poor. 

Men of war are not allowed by the gospel: the gospel 
knoweth peace and not war.* 

John Huss 

His Life. — The early years of John Huss resemble in 
some particulars the boyhood of Martin Luther. His par- 
ents were poor, his early years were spent in privation, and 
he earned his living by menial services and singing in 



* From Studies in Mystical Religion, by Jones, page 364, through the courtesy of 
the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 

269 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMERS 

churches. His higher studies were pursued at the Uni- 
versity of Prague, from which he was graduated a bache- 
lor of arts in 1393 and a master of arts in 1396. He be- 
came a lecturer at the university in 1398. In 1401 he was 
made dean of the faculty of philosophy and was elected 
rector of the university in 1403. He was ordained priest 
in 1400 and in 1402 became preacher of the Bethlehem 
chapel in Prague. He was soon the most forceful and in- 
fluential preacher of the capital. His career as a reformer 
developed rapidly. He gradually alienated the majority of 
his teachers but kept his hold upon the commoners and 
large numbers of the nobles. Compelled by an interdict 
laid upon Prague by the pope to withdraw temporarily from 
the city, he sent forth numerous tracts in Latin and in 
the Bohemian tongue and composed his chief work, The 
Church. Under the promise of safety from the emperor 
Sigismund he attended the Council of Constance, where his 
books were condemned, and he himself refusing to recant, 
was burned at the stake in 1415. Huss, it seems, never 
regarded himself as a heretic but held that even by the 
medieval standard he was a good Catholic. 

The Teaching of Huss. — There was close sympathy be- 
tween the universities of Oxford and Prague. The writings 
of Wy cliff e were brought to Prague and became the subject 
of lectures at the Bohemian university. The philosophical 
writings of Wycliffe first attracted the attention of Huss. 
Gradually he was led to adopt nearly the whole of the Eng- 
lish reformer's views, which he proclaimed with great fidel- 
ity unto his death. With the exception of Wycliffe's denial 
of transubstantiation, which view of the Eucharist Huss 
seems never to have held, he appears to have followed the 
teaching of Wycliffe summarized above. 

The Influence of Huss. — Notwithstanding the efforts of 
the church to crush Hussitism in Bohemia and the evils 
arising from the formation of sects among the reformers, 
as late as 1600 nine tenths of Bohemia and the German 
provinces of Austria were Protestant. But during the sev- 
enteenth century they were practically crushed under the 
severest persecution. The writings of Huss greatly influ- 

270 



DAYBKEAK IN DIFPEEENT LANDS 

enced the thinking of Luther. Some Hussites sent Luther 
the writings of Huss. After examining them he wrote: 
"I have hitherto taught and held all the opinions of John 
Huss unawares ; so did John Staupitz ; in short, we are all 
Hussites without knowing it. Paul and Augustine are 
Hussites to a word." 5 

Summaky: The Coming Kingdom 

The Awakening. — The church of the Middle Ages jour- 
neyed far from the Sermon on the Mount, but even during 
its sojourn in the prodigal's land there were yearning sons 
who saw the Father's house across the rough hills of the 
church's worldly life. These heralds of dawn were more 
numerous than the worldliness of the church might lead us 
to suppose, but the ones studied in this lesson are typical 
of all. It was the immorality of the clergy and the dead- 
ening autocracy of the spiritual rulers which finally aroused 
men's souls. 

A New Recognition of the Inner Life. — Since the papacy 
claimed apostolic origin for its government, these ques- 
tioners naturally betook themselves to the records of the 
apostolic age. Here in the Scriptures they found a Chris- 
tianity utterly at variance with that prevalent in their 
day. The Christianity of the Gospels fitted in with their 
needs, and by it they sought to live and to justify their 
criticisms of the existent ecclesiastical system. But the 
reforms studied in this chapter were more than a return to 
the Scriptures : they were a new recognition of the reality 
and validity of the inner life. It was a new consciousness 
that Christ dwelt, not primarily in the offices and sacra- 
ments of the church, but in the souls of his faithful dis- 
ciples. Men were discovering anew that God desired to 
dwell in tho life of his children. Their return to the 
Scriptures was not merely a return to the past: it was 
a return to the ever-living present of God's fellowship with 
those who seek him with purity and righteousness of life. 

A New Interest in Humanity. — This new revival of true 

8 Letter to Spalatin, 1520. 

271 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

religion led them, as always, to a new interest in humanity. 
Waldensians, Lollards, and Hussites were all social re- 
formers in a humble way. They were deeply interested in 
the physical welfare of humble folks. One reason that 
their movement failed was the appalling indifference of the 
rich and powerful to the welfare of the peasant and common 
toiler. The genuineness of these reformers is seen in their 
social vision, in their sacrifices for the weak, in their de- 
nunciations of injustice and inhumanity. 

The Reason They Failed. — These reformers failed be- 
cause the old interests of church and state were yet too 
firmly intrenched in the seats of power. The reforms 
lacked the firm leadership of princes who felt that the 
church was inimical to their interests. This political sup- 
port Luther was able to command. The Reformation, when 
it came, largely depended on ambitious political rulers who 
were glad to avail themselves of the rising tide of religious 
antagonism to the church. 

The Triumph of Truth 

Loyalty to Truth, Not Bigotry. — "Whenever I perceive 
a sounder reason than the one I was moved by I ever gladly 
and humbly recede from my former position." So Huss 
lived. The Council of Constance thought him obstinate 
and bigoted. He possessed the one open mind among them 
all. Truth is always determined. The man who knows, 
knows ; who feels sincerely feels powerfully. But he is far 
more loyal to the passion for truth than to any given 
truth. For he knows that truth is no static unit. The 
man who continues to think ever will find himself carrying 
coffins of things he once thought were true to an intellectual 
graveyard. 

The Test of Truth. — Physical power and multiplied 
wealth are not complete tests of truth. The medieval 
church was not true, yet it swayed autocratically the inner 
life and outward fortunes of men. A strong nation is not 
necessarily the exponent of the highest civilization. Great 
wealth is not an absolute credential of great honesty. The 
test of truth is the richness it brings to the inner life. The 

272 



DAYBKEAK IN DIFFERENT LANDS 

quickening sympathy, the developing sense of justice, the 
increasing longing for purity of heart, the breaking down 
of prejudice, the enriching of thought, the hunger for 
God: these are the assurances that men are following the 
heavenly monitor. Truth is revealed also in every rising 
up of humanness in the heart. To discover that we are 
not isolated beings traveling solitary and walled-in high- 
ways to the grave but individuals in the midst of innumer- 
able fellows like ourselves, who advance by mutual help, 
making our uncertain and daring way through the years to 
the paradise of God — this is to have wedded truth and 
known the glory of her beauty in the soul. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What conception of the church was held by the common 
people of the Middle Ages? by thoughtful people? 

2. What gave a priest his standing? 

3. Discuss Wycliffe's charges against the friars. 

4. What caused the papal schism of 1378? 

5. State the practical significance of the Council of Con- 
stance. 

6. Discuss the Waldensians. What caused their persecu- 
tion? 

7. In what way did the teachings of Wycliffe influence his 
own and succeeding generations? 

8. To what extent was intellectual training a factor in the 
work of Huss? 

9. Illustrate the new interest in humanity manifested by 
the Waldensians, the Lollards, and the Hussites. 

10. Why did the forerunners of the Reformation fail? 

Suggested Eeadings 

The Green Devil, Metcalf, a story of the times of Wycliffe. 

The Three Religious Leaders of Oxford, Cadman, pages 
5-170. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume V, Part II, 
pages 302-99. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 292-306. 

Studies in Mystical Religion, Jones, pages 130-49; 333-68, 

England in the Age of Wycliffe, Trevelyan. 



273 



CHAPTER XXII 

LUTHER AND THE GERMAN REFORMATION 

After all the lines of development through the Middle 
Ages have been traced, after all the labors of the fore- 
runners of Luther have been duly appreciated, after all the 
political and economical movements that gave the oppor- 
tunity for the vision and the passion of the German re- 
former to succeed, are clearly appreciated, there yet re- 
mains to be understood that God raised up in Martin 
Luther a man who shook the world, and that the Reforma- 
tion marks a crisis and a new beginning of the world's 
history. 

From Huss to Luther 

The State of the Church. — The Council of Constance in 
1415 asserted the superiority of a general council of the 
church over the papacy .and arranged for a series of councils 
to check the papal pretensions and abuses. The Council of 
Basel in 1431-43 attempted some reforms, but the power 
of the papacy reasserted itself, and in 1459 Pope Pius II 
punished as heretics those who were injudicious enough to 
call for a general council. The character of the popes was 
unchanged. The deepest crimes were perpetrated by the 
occupants of the seat of Saint Peter. Popes openly ac- 
knowledged their children and advanced them to the high- 
est positions in the church. Licentiousness, treachery, 
simony, war, and murder befouled the papacy in the latter 
half of the century that separated Huss and Luther. 

The Political Conditions. — The intrigues and the wars 
of the popes to strengthen themselves as temporal princes 
emboldened secular princes to withstand their exactions. 
German princes assembled in a diet at Frankfort in 1456 
denied the right of the pope to demand a tithe of the 
church benefices to finance a crusade against the Turks. 

274 



LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION 

In 1501 the German states sought to prevent moneys raised 
by papal indulgences being sent to Rome. During these 
years there was a constant increase of formulated com- 
plaints on the part of German princes against the Roman 
see. States were becoming aware of national rights and 
national ambitions. It was this new spirit, constantly 
growing stronger, which failed Wycliffe and Huss but 
which stood back of Luther to give opportunity and force 
to his demands for reform. 

The New Learning. — Between 1450 and 1500 a series 
of events had taken place which did much to emancipate 
human thought from the old slavery to the schoolmen and 
the papal authority. The capture of Constantinople by the 
Turks in 1453 drove to Italy many Greek scholars, whose 
presence awakened a new interest in the classical studies 
of antiquity. During the second half of the fifteenth cen- 
tury printing became common. Fully a hundred thousand 
copies of the Bible were in circulation in Germany at the 
beginning of the Reformation. Columbus and many of his 
imitators had made their voyages. Nine great German 
universities were founded between 1456 and 1506. Ele- 
mentary schools were established everywhere. All these 
changes accustomed men to new ideas. Novelty of thought 
no longer aroused suspicion and antagonism. 

The Rise of the Common Man. — Medieval society recog- 
nized three classes of persons : the clergy, the nobles, and 
the peasants. Changes, due to many causes, were taking 
place in the latter half of the fifteenth century. The stimu- 
lating of the mind awakened the desire for physical com- 
forts. Commerce took on new proportions. Cities began 
to flourish with manufacture and trade. Wealth began to 
multiply, not in the hands always of the nobles but in the 
possession of burghers, or citizens. Money began to talk. 
Free cities sprang up everywhere, became virtually little 
republics, and offered the enterprising peasants the chance 
to escape economic servitude. The merchants began to be 
the real power of Europe. Prices of commodities rose and 
wrought hardship upon the humble laborer. The poorer 
nobles, also suffering from the new economic order, began 

275 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND BEFOEMEES 

to oppress the peasant farmers. Eents were increased, and 
ancient privileges curtailed. These harsh conditions 
aroused the peasantry of Germany to assert their human 
rights. A new sense of the rights of man was quickened 
among them. They were ready for armed efforts to secure 
a better footing in society. 

The Eeformation in Germany 

The Attack on Indulgences. — The match that set the 
Eeformation on fire in Germany was the sale of indul- 
gences. In 1510 Pope Julius II proclaimed a plenary 
indulgence to secure funds to build the great church of 
Saint Peter's in Eome. This indulgence was not placed 
on sale in Germany until 1515, when Albert, archbishop of 
Mainz, was authorized to market the papal forgiveness and 
at the same time reimburse himself for the twenty thou- 
sand gulden he had paid the pope for his office. 

(a) The preaching of Tetzel. — The actual conduct of the 
traffic was in charge of John Tetzel, a Dominican friar who 
was experienced in such affairs. Tetzel not only preached 
the indulgence but drew up outlines of sermons for his 
subordinates. The people were told that every mortal sin 
(pride, covetousness, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, etc.) was pe- 
nalized by seven years of penance either on earth or in pur- 
gatory; that the indulgences relieved their purchasers from 
these pains ; that friends and relatives should purchase the 
release of their dead kindred from purgatory ; that the liv- 
ing should have in hand a plenary indulgence for them- 
selves to be used at the last hour to ticket their sinful lives 
safely through to Paradise. 

(b) The protest of Luther. — Martin Luther, at the time 
a professor in the University of Wittenberg, was aroused by 
the coarse manner in which the indulgence mongers 
preached and by the false conception of indulgences which 
the people obtained from such preaching. October 31, 
1517, Luther attached to the wooden door of the castle 
church of Wittenberg his famous ninety-five theses, which 
attacked in a moderate way the system of indulgences. The 
following are the more revolutionary of these theses : 

276 



LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION 

Those preachers of indulgences are in error who say that 
by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty 
and saved. 

They will be condemned eternally, together with their 
teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation be- 
cause they have letters of pardon. 

Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part 
in all the blessings of Christ and in the church: this is 
granted him by God even without letters of pardon. 

Why does not the pope empty purgatory for the sake of 
holy love and of dire need of the souls that are there if he 
redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable 
money with which to build a church? The former reasons 
would be most just: the latter is most trivial. 

The sympathy of Luther for the peasantry of Germany ap- 
pears in theses 41-46. The following is characteristic : 

Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need 
and passes him by and gives his money for pardons pur- 
chases not the indulgences of the pope but the indignation of 
God. 

These theses did not seriously attack the papacy but they 
expressed the German feeling that a limit should be placed 
upon the papal greed. The theses were printed and pub- 
lished widely. Germans everywhere began to turn to 
Luther as the champion of church reform. 

The Breach With Rome. — The controversy aroused by 
the publication of the theses stimulated Luther's study and 
opened his mind to realize that true religion involved a 
permanent break with the Eoman Church. In 1520 he is- 
sued three great pamphlets, with the publication of which 
the German Eef ormation was in full swing : 

(a) "An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of the 
German Nation/' — This booklet, more than any other sin- 
gle writing of these troubled years, sets forth the mingled 
motives that led the German people to espouse the Pro- 
testant cause. The following paragraphs indicate both 
the abuses and the reforms which thinking Germans felt 
most keenly : 

The Christian nobility should set itself against the pope as 
against a common enemy and destroyer of Christendom and 
should do this for the salvation of the poor souls who must 

277 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOBMEES 

go to ruin for his tyranny. They should ordain, order, and 
decree that henceforth no benefice shall be drawn into the 
hands of Rome. . . . An imperial law should be issued that 
no bishop's cloak and no confirmation of any dignity whatso- 
ever shall henceforth be secured from Rome. 

Pilgrimages to Rome should be abolished. To restore a 
true understanding of good works all pilgrimages should 
be given up; for there is in them nothing good but, on the 
contrary, numberless occasions for sin. 

Monasteries should no more be builded. Would to God 
they were all done away, or at least given over to two or 
three orders! Wandering about the land never has brought 
any good and never will bring any good. It is much more 
important to consider what the common people need for their 
salvation than what Saint Francis, Saint Dominic, or Saint 
Augustine has decreed. 

Marriage of clergy. — I advise that henceforth neither at his 
consecration to the priesthood nor at any other time shall 
anyone under any circumstances promise the bishop to live 
in celibacy but shall declare to the bishop that he has no 
authority to demand such a vow, and that to demand it is the 
devil's own tyranny. 

Canon law. — We could never discover the whole arbitrary 
will of the pope, which has now become the canon law. The 
whole canon law from the first letter to the last should be 
blotted out. The canon law has risen in the devil's name. The 
Bible contains more than enough directions for our daily liv- 
ing, and so the study of the canon law only stands in the 
way of the study of the Holy Scriptures. 

Economic-social reforms. — The greatest misfortune of the 
German nation is the traffic in annuities. It has not existed 
much over a hundred years and yet has already brought 
almost all princes, cities, endowed institutions, nobles, and 
their heirs to poverty, misery, and ruin. We must put a bit 
in the mouth of the Fuggers [a leading banking and com- 
mercial company] and similar corporations. How is it pos- 
sible that in the lifetime of a single man such great possess- 
sions, worthy of a king, can be piled up, and yet everything 
be done legally and according to God's will? 

(b) "The Babylonian Captivity" — This pamphlet, pub- 
lished in 1520, marks Lu ther's final and irreparable break 
with Borne. In it the reformatory thinking of Luther in 
the realm of theology reaches its culmination. Luther here 
discards the seven sacraments of the Eoman Church and 
retains but two — baptism and the Lord's Supper. 

(1) The Lord's Supper. — Luther teaches that both the 

278 



LUTHEK AND THE REFORMATION 

eucharistic elements, bread and wine, are to be offered to all. 
He denied the Roman doctrine of transubstantiation : real 
bread and real wine remain after the elements are conse- 
crated ; but Christ's body and blood are there too after the 
consecration. Their presence cannot be detected by the 
senses or justified by reason ; but since Christ asserted that 
the bread was his body, and the cup his blood, this real pres- 
ence of Christ, along with the real bread and real wine, 
is to be held by faith. The mass, declared Luther, is not 
a sacrifice. The mass is the promise of Christ that sins 
shall be foregiven. The mass received by faith vitalizes this 
promise of Christ. "The whole power of the mass consists 
in the words of Christ, in which he testifies that the remis- 
sion of sins is bestowed on all those who believe that his 
body is given and his blood shed for them." 

{2) Baptism. — The gist of Luther's position is his effort 
to restore baptism to its apostolic significance. "The sacra- 
ments," he says, "are not fulfilled when they are observed 
but when they are believed." The act of baptism means 
nothing unless it "signifies your dying and living again." 
"Never does baptism lose its power unless you despair and 
refuse to return to its salvation. You may, indeed, for a 
season wander from the sign, but that does not make the 
sign of none effect. You have thus been baptized once in 
the sacrament but you must be constantly baptized again 
through faith, you must constantly die, you must con- 
stantly live again." For Luther faith in the dying and 
risen Lord and the act of the Christian dying to sin and 
rising again to holiness of life constitute the essence of this 
sacrament. Thus, Luther swept away the Catholic system 
of penance, quickened faith in the sacrament of baptism, 
and encouraged renewed efforts to overcome sin by faith 
in Christ. Luther, while stating that the form of the rite 
is not essential, prefers immersion. Immersion, he says, 
brings out the full significance of baptism as the "symbol 
of death and resurrection." Luther holds to infant bap- 
tism. The saving faith, which the sacrament presupposes, 
is furnished by those who bring the children to baptism. 

(c) "A Treatise on Christian Liberty/' — Such is the title 

279 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

of the third of Luther's writings in 1520 which established 
the standards of German Reformation thoughts. In his 
treatise the essence of Luther's religious teaching is found. 
Luther said of this book, "Unless I am deceived, it is the 
whole of Christian living in a brief form/' Luther here 
expounds his fundamental conviction of salvation: Men 
are justified before God by faith, and faith alone : 

The soul can do without all things except the word of God. 
The word of God cannot be received and cherished by any 
works whatever but only by faith. Faith works truth and 
righteousness if we believe. Faith unites the soul with 
Christ. It is now impossible that sins should destroy the 
soul, since they are laid upon Christ and swallowed up in 
him. Hence, we are all priests and kings in Christ. Every 
Christian is by faith so exalted above all things that by a 
spiritual power he is lord of all things without exception. 
In all things I can find no profit unto salvation, so that the 
cross and death itself are compelled to serve me and to work 
together with me for my salvation. We are also priests for- 
ever: we are worthy to appear before God to pray for others 
and to teach one another the things of God. 

The Fire at Wittenberg. — Luther was excommunicated 
in 1520 while these tracts were being written. In some 
places, in response to the papal bull of excommunication, 
his books were burned. Luther retaliated by burning the 
books of canon law, the decretals, and the papal bull that 
had excommunicated him. The spectacular and heroic 
scene was enacted in the presence of a multitude near the 
Church of the Holy Cross outside the walls of Wittenberg. 
Luther in this daring fashion placed himself at the head 
of the German Eeformation. Single-handed, he defied the 
powers that had ignominiously scattered the bones of Wy- 
cliffe, burned Huss, hanged Savonarola, and for centuries 
had crushed those who dared to question the authority of 
the Eoman see. 

The Diet at Worms. — The writings of Luther, the papal 
excommunication, and the reformer's bold defiance of papal 
authority compelled the German Imperial Diet to take 
action. Luther, under safe conduct of the emperor, was 
called to Worms in 1521. He obeyed the imperial sum- 

280 



LUTHEE AND THE REFORMATION* 

mons although he had before him the fate of Huss. Every- 
where on the journey he was treated with honor. When, in 
the presence of the diet, the papal representatives de- 
manded that he should retract his writings, he said that 
his writings were of three classes: (1) Those written for 
the edification of believers, which even his adversaries ad- 
mitted to be harmless and even useful : he could not retract 
these. (2) In a second group of writings he had attacked 
the exactions of the papacy: everyone knew that Germany 
had been devoured by the greed and the tyranny of the 
pope. If such writings were denied, papal oppression could 
be encouraged, and Germany would continue to be ravaged. 
(3) The third class of writings were against his adver- 
saries : he admitted that at times he had been too violent ; 
but in them he had upheld the doctrine of Christ. "I 
stand here," he concluded, "ready, if anyone can prove 
me to have written falsely, to retract my errors and to 
throw my books into the fire with my own hands. Beware 
lest if you condemn the divine Word, that Word send forth 
upon you a deluge of ills. I seek not to offer advice to your 
high and mighty understandings, but I owe this testimony 
of a loving heart to my native Germany." 

Establishing the Reform Ideas. — It is impossible to men- 
tion here all or in any detail the various steps, difficulties, 
divergences of view, quarrels, and programs by which the 
Reformation became established in Germany. In the fore- 
going paragraphs the fundamental Reformation ideas have 
been given, and the chief services of Luther narrated. In 
1530 an attempt was made at the Diet of Augsburg to find 
a basis upon which Protestants of Germany might remain 
within the Catholic Church. But the conference availed 
nothing : the breach was too wide and too deep. There were 
many difficulties and local problems of church life and ad- 
ministration which needed solution in an establishment of 
the Lutheran Church. The Augsburg Confession, drawn 
up in 1530, to present a summary of Reformation belief, 
was made the basis of a legalization of Protestantism in 
1555. Each German state was left to choose between the 
Catholic and the Lutheran faith, as expressed in the Augs- 

281 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFORMEKS 

burg Confession. The decision of the prince bound his 
subjects, but any individual was free to emigrate to find 
the religion of his choice. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

The Dawn of New Religious Epoch. — It has been said 
that Luther taught nothing new. This also has been said 
of Jesus. But the indubitable fact remains that some- 
thing tremendously new sprang out of their lives. The 
Eef ormation was the dawning of a new religious epoch. It 
swept aside the accumulated hindrances of fellowship be- 
tween man and God and set the individual face to face with 
his divine Father to receive forgiveness and to find liberty 
and gladness of soul. Yet this religious goal would not 
have been reached in Luther's day more than in the times 
of Huss had not the majority of the states of Germany seen 
that it was to their financial and political interest to sup- 
port the religious reformers. There were many things the 
Eeformation did not settle. No final settlement of the 
forms and beliefs of the religious life can be settled by any 
generation. But the reformers did usher in a spirit which 
has never died. They taught liberty of judgment, and that 
true religion ever emphasizes the moral life. They sub- 
stituted the authority of truth for the authority of official 
fiat and inaugurated the principle that only that is truth 
which weathers the test of reason and experience. 

The Bible in Human Life 

The Bible Lights the Path of Progress. — Wherever the 
darkness of lust and passion has been dispelled, wherever 
the night of wrong and intrenched abuses has given way 
to dawn, wherever the mists of ignorance and supersti- 
tion have lifted, the Bible has thrown its flaring beams 
against the shadows and ushered in the glorious day. The 
Scriptures gave us a Paul and Savonarola, a Waldo and 
Wycliffe, a Huss and Luther, a Carey and Chinese Gor- 
don, a Lincoln and Gladstone, a John Howard and John 
Brown, a Tennyson and Browning, a Kuskin and Carlyle, 

282 



LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION 

The Bible has breathed liberty into governments and insti- 
tutions, has inspired oppressed peoples to win their rights, 
has taught debased peoples glowing moral ideals, and has 
given courage to innumerable thousands of lowly men and 
women to stand steadfastly for truth and righteousness. 

The Bible Made the Reformation Possible.— The Refor- 
mation was possible because the new interest in learning 
and the printing press opened the way for the return of 
the Bible into the homes and the life of the people. Re- 
ligion made its way into church and state with the Bible. 
The Bible was rescued from the oblivion into which igno- 
rance had thrust it and brought back again into the life 
of the people. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What was the nature of the government of the medieval 
church? 

2. State the papal attitude toward civil authority. 

3. What effect upon the people had the moral degeneracy 
of the popes of the fifteenth century? 

4. Discuss the attempts made to check papal absolutism. 

5. In what way did the growth of nationalism help in effect- 
ing the Reformation? 

6. Discuss the new intellectual conditions which were pre- 
paring the way for the Reformation? 

7. What were some of the outstanding social changes of 
the latter half of the fifteenth century? 

8. Discuss the event which precipitated the Reformation 
career of Martin Luther. 

9. What did he urge upon the German nobility? What re- 
forms did he propose in 1520? 

10. Discuss Luther's position concerning papal authority; 
the sacraments; the meaning of religion; the Scriptures; the 
nature and the results of faith. 

11. Why was Luther excommunicated? What service did 
his theological troubles render the Kingdom? 

12. Discuss the formulary of faith which was realized in 
Germany as the basis of Protestant religion. 

13. What are some of the enduring results of the Reforma- 
tion in Germany? 

14. What was the contribution of the political and economic 
interests of the German states to the Reformation? 

15. What value for the future had the rediscovery of the 
value of the individual? 

283 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND EEPOEMEKS 

Selected Readings 

Protestant Thought Before Kant, McGiffert, pages 26-60. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 306-82. 

Works of Martin Luther (published by Holman and Com- 
pany), Volume II, pages 57-164. This is a translation of 
Luther's An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume VI, pages 
94-743. 

Article "Reformation" in Encyclopedia Britannica and En- 
cyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. 



284 



CHAPTEE XXIII 

CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

In the Keformation men lifted their souls out of the 
murky atmospheres of moral and political servitude into 
the blue sky of individuality and spiritual liberty, and the 
world for the first time began to live. But Luther did not 
work alone. That princely German did not carry the 
Eeformation further than a giant protest against the cor- 
rupt and autocratic medieval church. Had no other torch- 
bearers of the new life arisen to light the way out of night 
into day, the ethical and political issues of the Eeforma- 
tion in their larger meaning certainly never would have 
blessed the world. This chapter depicts the Eeformation 
in Geneva and France and considers the work of Calvin 
and the hopes and tragedies of the Huguenots. Next to 
Luther, Calvin is our greatest reformer. His work bridges 
the centuries and often, even when we are unaware of it, 
influences us all to-day. 

Beginnings of the Eefoemation in Fkance 

French Protestants.— The need of church reform was 
early recognized in France. Jean Gerson and Pierre 
d'Ailly, at the Council of Constance in 1415, were the 
leaders of the movement to subject the papacy to general 
councils. The New Learning was welcomed at Paris and 
created a new sense of individuality and an atmosphere of 
unrest. By 1519 Luther's Latin writings were being 
eagerly read at Paris. In 1523 Lefevre translated the New 
Testament into French. The bishop of Meaux, influenced 
by Lefevre, a professor at the University of Paris, gath- 
ered about him several preachers, who began to proclaim 
moderately reformed views, basing their message upon 
the New Testament. The church, however, began to no- 

285 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

tice these innovations, and two men suffered martyrdom 
in 1525. During the next ten years the Protestant contin- 
gent spread, sometimes persecuted, sometimes tolerated. 
In 1535 a royal edict was published that the heretics were 
to be exterminated. From this edict begins the emigra- 
tion of French Protestants, which was to continue more 
than three centuries. In 1538 the first French Protestant 
Church was organized by fifteen refugees at Strassburg. 

The Father of French Protestantism 

John Calvin. — A learned French scholar, leader of the 
New Learning, about 1532 suddenly determined to join 
himself to the Protestant cause. He largely prepared an 
address that his friend Nicholas Cop, the new rector of the 
University of Paris, delivered in 1533. This address was a 
defense of the Eeformed opinions, especially the doctrine of 
justification by faith. The authorities were incensed; and 
to escape punishment Cop fled to Basel, where, somewhat 
later, Calvin became the outstanding leader of French 
Protestantism. Two or three years later Calvin was in 
Geneva, where, much against his desire, he was persuaded 
to enter publicly as preacher and teacher in the work of 
applying the reform ideas to the religious and civil life of 
the city. With the exception of a short residence in Strass- 
burg he remained in Geneva until he died in 1564. 

"Institutes of the Christian Religion.' 5 — While Calvin 
was living at Basel he published a defense of the Eeformed 
faith. The persecutions in France, which condemned the 
Protestants without fair trial, aroused Calvin to protest to 
the king and attach to protest a statement of the beliefs of 
the Eeformed churches. This work was written when Cal- 
vin was twenty-six years old; and although it was several 
times revised and enlarged, the fundamental positions were 
unchanged. This statement of Christian doctrine, known 
as Calvinism, became the basis of the French Protestantism, 
the Eeformed churches in the Netherlands, the Presby- 
terians in Scotland, England, and America, and the Cal- 
vinistic Methodists. The "Institutes" were prefaced by a 
letter to King Francis — a letter that rightfully has been 

286 



CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

called "one of the great epistles of the world." Calvin, 
although an exile, claims for himself and fellow Protestants 
a legal place in the state and brands as foulest tyranny the 
power that condemns them unheard. He tells the king that 
his first duty is to be just, points out the vicious character 
of their accusers, and refutes calumnies concerning them- 
selves. 

The Theocracy at Geneva. — Calvin gave the modern 
world its first theocracy, (a) Geneva. — One needs to look 
only at the map of Europe to realize the rare opportunity 
and destiny of Geneva. It is a gateway of nations. Sur- 
rounded by France at the western tip of the crescent lake 
whose farthest waters lave the feet of the Swiss Alps; 
midway upon the Ehone, which is a highway to the sea 
and a path to the heart of Switzerland; in the midst of a 
plain running to the Ehine, Germany, and the Netherlands, 
the city is strangely fitted for the guidance of the fortunes 
of mankind at the dawn of the modern day. The Genevans 
of old were a cosmopolitan people. Built at the crossing 
of the routes of trade, the city shared the excellencies and 
the defects of a mingled race. They were thrifty and ener- 
getic in business, diplomats in civic affairs, personally de- 
voted to liberty, and capable of prolonged self-sacrifice. 

(b) The Genevan theocracy. — In 1536 Calvin, at twenty- 
eight years of age, came to Geneva and was impressed by 
Farel, who had brought the Reformation message to the 
city, to assume the leadership of the Protestant cause. To 
the end of his life Calvin devoted himself to the creation 
of a state wherein the divine will was the rule of life. He 
compelled men by the very grandeur of his intellectual 
genius, the austerity of his morals, his reliance upon God, 
and the nobleness of his self-sacrifice to the cause he cham- 
pioned, to believe that every office of government is sacred 
and exists only for the glory of God. A new Geneva 
rose under his leadership. Its citizens, indoctrinated by 
his catechism, taught by the university which he estab- 
lished, morally controlled by the preachers whom he trained, 
upheld by his conceptions of a spiritual and civil democracy, 
became a new people. Calvin produced a new force in the 

287 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEES 

world. The little Protestant state, breathing the Bible in 
its laws, manners, and institutions, successful in business, 
maintaining its liberty against strong nations, aware of 
its moral leadership among the peoples of Europe, became 
the world's first Puritan commonwealth, whose ideal in 
every land has been government manifesting the will of 
God. 

(c) The moral austerity of Calvinism. — Calvin's theol- 
ogy is built upon the rock of predestination: God's will 
everywhere rules the world. But Calvin's predestination 
did not rob man of responsibility ; it heightened it and in- 
fused it with iron. Calvin is quite modern in his recog- 
nition of the social forces, external to the individual, which 
mass their influences upon him. He saw that at every point 
the individual is touched by forces he did not make: 
forces in which the slightest change alters the whole tenor 
of man's life. But Calvin held that although God shaped 
the environment of man's life he did not utterly hedge in 
his creature's choice of good or ill; man's choice ever was 
a proximate cause in the affairs of life. It was Calvin's 
clear perception of the wide range of God's ethical demands 
which gave him such tremendous power. Calvinism saved 
Europe from the flood of license which the revolt from 
the medieval church authority naturally engendered. With 
the passing of the old church order the state alone pos- 
sessed authority to enforce religious and moral discipline. 
It is to Calvin's honor that he brought home to the 
state its obligation of moral discipline. 

Calvin and the Protestants of France 

A Heroic Church. — The annals of Christianity present 
no greater persecutions and no greater steadfastness under 
trial than the wounds and heroism exhibited by the Prot- 
estants of Prance. The early Christians martyrs suffered 
no greater hardships. More than two hundred thousand 
Huguenots, from first to last, were tortured and slain, and 
nearly half a million passed into exile in other lands. Cal- 
vin had a great part in disciplining this heroic church. 

(a) The spirit of Calvin. — Calvin's Deity was the Holy 

288 



CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

One ruling the world with justice and power. Men might 
rise to fame and fortune, flaunt their uncurbed passions 
of lust, cruelty, and greed, crush those by exile and death 
who reproached their libertinage ; but such men still must 
reckon with God. Calvin saw, or believed he saw, as clearly 
as this world ever has seen, the final act of human history. 
He saw in his own time a religion of mysteries which 
reason was to make no attempt to solve ; a public worship 
full of pomp, luxury, and meaningless ceremonies ; a clergy 
commonplace and ignorant, autocratic and indifferent; he 
saw a nobility and court restless and greedy, full of scan- 
dals, brazen in luxury, grounded in despotism, antagonists 
of justice and liberty. He saw a social order of rapine and 
cruelty, lust and greed, ignorance and superstition, upheld 
in the name of Christ by a church from which the spirit of 
Christ had departed. But Calvin saw more than this : he 
saw the avenging God ready to strike these blasphemers and 
traitors with the penalty of their sins. He saw the dawn 
of a new church and a new state, where morals were pure, 
where the people selected their ministers and rulers, and 
where rulers and ministers were the servants of the people. 
Calvin climbed out of the miasmic levels of his day into 
the spiritual uplands. All around him he saw God's moun- 
tains lift rugged and stern demands of truth, purity, and 
holiness, mantled with the rarest colors of content and joy. 
With this vision in his soul it was easy to subdue the pas- 
sions, attempt the impossible, scorn the customary prizes, 
accept the galleys, the hangman, and the fire. 

(&) The spirit of the Huguenots. — Thus Calvin believed 
and thus he inspired the men to believe whom he sent forth 
to preach the gospel. Into France alone there went forth 
from Geneva during Calvin's life one hundred and sixty-one 
preachers inspired by his creed, disciplined by his spirit. 
These men, learned, fearless, saintly, ever cherishing in 
their soul the cross of Christ, became the founders of the 
Huguenot church. No heralds of the truth ever have met 
a more bitter reception. They faced a persecution unpar- 
alleled in civilized lands. To fail to reverence a crucifix, to 
attend a Protestant service, to own a Bible, to be known as 

289 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

having come from Geneva, was a sentence of death. But 
these men knew no flinching and counted it a joy to seal 
their testimony to Christ with martyrdom. On their way 
to the stake and even when the flames were curling round 
their limbs, they refused life and liberty at the price of 
hearing a mass or kissing the cross. God gave them a 
vision of the Celestial City. 

Church Organization in France. — Protestant churches 
had been organized at Meaux in 1546 and Nismes in 1547, 
but both were broken up by persecution. The first perma- 
nent organization took place at Paris in 1555. The society 
was modeled after the church in Strassburg founded by 
Calvin in 1538. Those who banded themselves together 
in Christian fellowship chose their pastor and then a coun- 
cil of deacons and elders to assist him in the administra- 
tion of the church. Other churches rapidly followed, and 
by 1558 it was estimated that there were three hundred 
thousand Protestants in France. All these churches fol- 
lowed Calvin's model and were under his supervision. In 
the face of religious persecution the reform movement 
spread and won accessions from the highest classes of so- 
ciety. The scattered churches were brought together in a 
synod held in Paris in 1559. This synod provided for both 
church government and church doctrine. The individual 
churches situated near each other were grouped into a 
council. The councils were grouped into provincial synods, 
in which each church was equally represented by the clergy 
and laity. The National Synod was composed of lay and 
clerical delegates elected by the provincial synods. Thus 
arose the direct product of Calvin's thought — the Presby- 
terian form of church government. The confession of faith 
adopted for the Protestant Church of France at the Synod 
of 1559 was almost wholly the composition of Calvin. 

Huguenot Trials and Triumphs 

Struggles for Freedom of Worship. — By 1561 there were 
twenty-one hundred and fifty Huguenot (French Protest- 
ant, or Eeformed) churches in France. Some of the ablest 
Frenchmen of the sixteenth century were of their number. 

290 



CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

The Huguenots, to resist persecution, became a political 
party, and the country for a half century was torn with civil 
wars. The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew (1572) robbed 
the Huguenots of their leaders, but the struggle continued 
until the Edict of Nantes (1598) guaranteed the Protest- 
ants political and religious liberty. The Eoman Catholics 
continually protested against the edict, and under Louis 
XIV it was revoked, and France lost by death and exile 
nearly half a million of its best citizens. Yet the Hugue- 
nots were not utterly crushed. They held their services in 
secret. Pastors, making light of death, returned from 
exile to comfort and sustain the harried churches. The 
galleys were filled by the faithful, who were discovered 
from time to time. The history of the Huguenots is the 
history of a church that refused to die. Even when Louis 
XIV thought they were utterly crushed, the churches began 
to multiply. Due largely to the zeal of LaFayette, their 
civil rights were restored in 1787, and in 1789 their liberty 
of worship was granted them. There are more than half a 
million spiritual descendants of Calvin in France at the 
present time. 

Huguenot Migrations. — Other nations may bless Louis 
XIV for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Although 
emigration was forbidden under penalty of the gallows, 
multiplied thousands of French Protestants made their 
way into other lands. They were welcomed almost every- 
where. They introduced new manufacturing industries 
into north Germany. They built up a suburb of London. 
They furnished regiments of soldiers to the Prince of 
Orange. They founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope. 
They founded many a prosperous business in Massachu- 
setts. The Huguenots poured thousands into the Carolinas, 
settled entire villages, and mingled their fortunes and 
their blood in the American War of Independence. Faneuil 
Hall was given to Boston by a Huguenot; Bowdoin Col- 
lege bears a Huguenot name and was made possible by 
Huguenot money. Oberlin College perpetuates the name 
of a beloved Huguenot minister. Two of the five commis- 
sioners who negotiated the treaty with England which se- 

291 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMEKS 

cured American independence, John Jay and Henry 
Laurens, were Huguenots. Truly French Protestantism, 
out of the deepest suffering, has enriched the world. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

Puritanism the Permanent Eesult of Luther's Work. — 

The Reformation, breaking up the old order of church gov- 
ernment, theology, and morals, in Luther's day did not 
erect a new order upon the newly won liberty. That emer- 
gence from chaos into ordered liberty of church and state 
was the accomplishment of the Puritans of France, Eng- 
land, and the New World. The Huguenots, the Puritans 
of France, were the crystal fountains of new life whose 
refreshing streams might have transformed into a paradise 
the barren waste of French government, art, education, and 
morals; but those currents of ethical power were despised 
and harassed through a century and .a half by Eomanist 
bigotry and absolutism until they were deflected from their 
natural courses to fertilize with their idealism the industry 
and political institutions of other lands. 

Calvin's Vision a Source of Power. — The source of Puri- 
tan civilization is not Wittenberg but Geneva; not Luther 
but Calvin. The church, by its lust and politics, its indif- 
ference to the deadly bondage, its eagerness for gain had 
imposed upon men's souls, no longer led men who dared 
to think, to >honor God. It is Calvin's greatness that he 
voiced the majesty and authority of the living God in a 
dying age and arrested by the overwhelming grandeur of 
his convictions the process of decay in western Europe. 
He tore away the dead institutionalism that the church 
had built between man and his Maker and taught men to 
stand humbly but confidently in the presence of their Cre- 
ator. No other reformer flashed the eternal glory of God 
so brilliantly upon the sinful life of men. He brought 
home to men the supreme imperative : the subordination of 
the wish of the hour to the claims of eternity. Above all 
kings, emperors, and dignitaries of the church he saw the 
sovereign Lord of earth and heaven, whose will the rebel- 

292 



CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

lious princes of the world cannot withstand. Above all the 
voices of luxury, power, lust, and expediency he heard the 
word of the Eternal go forth that men must be just and 
righteous, stern warriors against the corrupting sins of a 
polluted and depraved world. 

Calvin's Influence in the Affairs of Men. — It has fallen 
to the lot of no churchman to surpass Calvin in the mag- 
nitude of his influence in the affairs of men. It seems in- 
credible that, even by the sheer weight of his powerful 
genius, he should have been able to shape so exten- 
sively the free institutions of the modern world. His let- 
ters went to the nobility, the prime ministers, and the 
kings of several lands, to the foremost reformers of every 
city, to the most inconspicuous martyr whose last earthly 
hours he could comfort and encourage. He won Geneva's 
freedom, indoctrinated Switzerland, gave the Huguenot 
church to Prance, liberated the Netherlands from Spain, set 
up the Eeformation in Scotland, loomed larger than Crom- 
well in England's Puritanism, taught the Pilgrims to face 
the wintry seas and trust themselves to the Western world, 
wrote martyrdom into the soul of Protestantism, gave the 
Presbyterian doctrines and church government to many 
lands, and lives in the Huguenot contribution of industry, 
education, and morality to their adopted fatherlands. "No 
one who ever followed his counsel went wrong/' wrote Beza, 
who succeeded him at Geneva. Calvin and the Huguenots 
proved the happy and natural union of patriotism, indus- 
try, and liberty with the sternest morality and most exalted 
religious convictions. 

The Presence of God 

Man's Lowliness. — Paul, Augustine, and Calvin lived by 
an abounding vision of God, the mighty Sovereign of the 
world. Beside the ineffable glory of his wisdom and power 
the life of man seemed puny and vain. Of what goodness 
can man boast beside the dazzling purity of God ? How can 
he pride himself in freedom when his liberty leads him into 
lust and greed? How can he stand unabashed before a 

293 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Being whose laws he has trampled in the mire ? Verily he 
can claim no mercy, demand nothing from the Deity whose 
unworthy creature he is. 

Man's Greatness. — But lo ! Men become conscious of the 
infinite grace of God in their lives. He has chosen them to 
be his servants, his ministers, his sons. The humbled, 
cowed, groveling creature stands erect: the divine mercy 
has made him a man : God has created him his vicegerent 
in this wicked world. The Puritan is born. The Hugue- 
not arrives. Calvin speaks, and martyrs for the cause of 
God are branded, tortured, burned. Knox reforms Scot- 
land. Bunyan travels to the Celestial City. Blind Milton 
writes a drama of the universe. Cromwell creates an orig- 
inal commonwealth. The Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock. 
Iron is poured into the blood of the Western world. Its 
power still lives. 

Theocratic Government. — This is the world's supreme 
need: government in which those who are exalted to au- 
thority see beyond the political expediency of the hour the 
will of the eternal God to be wrought out in life. To see 
no higher goal than commercial ends in government is the 
stupid path to ruin. The world is full of the wrecks of 
material selfishness. But what explains the Huguenots? 
What furnished them their strange strength? What en- 
abled them to cling so passionately to their goal? They 
saw God, they were upheld by God. They had received 
God's commission to erect a righteous social order on earth. 
They were kept by this vision of government existing to 
fulfill the pleasure of the Most High. 

The World's Debt to Calvin. — We Methodists could not 
worship without him. We have not followed his theology 
but we are his debtors for more than we know. His ideal- 
ism is in our blood. God summoning men to righteous- 
ness was his creed, and for this creed he labored with a 
martyr's soul until he died. With every acceptance of 
duty, with every rush of repentant shame, with every lift- 
ing of the soul to God and sterner resolve to do his will, we 
are the inheritors of the truths he championed : truths that 
have filtered through our English institutions and ideals 

294 



CALVIN AND THE HUGUENOTS 

and in our soberer hours summon us with strange, irresist- 
ible power. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What is the relation of the Scriptures to the reform 
movements thus far stated? 

2. Contrast Calvin's use of the Bible with the use made 
of it by Waldo and Wycliffe. 

3. To what extent was the revival of preaching based on 
the Scriptures? 

4. Discuss the life of John Calvin. 

5. In what ways was he the father of French Protestantism? 

6. To what extent did Calvin make a great contribution 
to Protestantism with (a) his theology, (&) his emphasis upon 
education, (c) his moral sternness? 

7. How are the convictions of Calvin seen in (a) his cor- 
respondence with other reformers, (b) his training of Hugue- 
not preachers, (c) his gift of the Presbyterian form of gov- 
ernment to the church? 

8. Discuss the first permanent church organization of Paris. 

9. In what struggles for freedom of worship did the Hugue- 
nots participate? 

10. Discuss the Huguenot migrations and the influence 
they had on the lands to which these people went. 

11. State the advance that Calvin's reform made over that 
of Luther. 

Beading Kefekences 

Articles "Calvinism" and "Huguenots" in Encyclopaedia 
of Religion and Ethics. 

Articles "Calvin" and "Huguenots" in Encyclopaedia Britan- 
nica. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 386-401; 
431-41. 

History of the Christian Church, Schaff, Volume VII, pages 
223-876. 

The Reformation in the Lands Beyond Germany, Lindsay, 
pages 61-223. 

The Psalms in Human Life, Prothero, Chapter VIII. 

History of France, Duruy, Chapters XLIII-XLVII. 



295 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

The Reformation in England and Scotland, though it 
followed paths beaten for it by the reformers of Germany 
and Switzerland, is an exceedingly important Kingdom 
movement. It gave liberty of conscience, democratic gov- 
ernment, and church creeds and government to the vast 
English-speaking world. The establishment of the Refor- 
mation in Zurich, in Norway and Sweden, in Denmark and 
the Netherlands, though an important contribution to 
modern civilization, lies sufficiently outside of the main 
currents of the Reformation to be neglected by the brief 
treatment here possible. 

The Reformation in England 

Factors in the Revolt From Rome. — (a) The Lollards. — 
It will be recalled from Chapter XXI that the followers of 
Wycliffe, called Lollards, were subject to great persecu- 
tions. Although driven to cover they were not utterly 
crushed. In country districts, among the humbler classes 
in towns, and occasionally in higher ranks the spirit of 
Wycliffe lived in the objections that images were idols, 
and that prayers to saints and pilgrimages were gross 
abuses, and in the belief that the Scriptures are the sole 
rule of faith. Many manuscript copies of Wycliffe's Bible, 
dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, now 
extant, evidence that the book was cherished in secret and 
read in danger. In spite of the danger and the fact that 
during the fifteenth century many were imprisoned for 
life for possessing and reading the Bible the sacred writ- 
ings were prized by great numbers. Sometimes a little 
company would sit the night through listening to some 
trained reader. A load of hay frequently was given for a 

296 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

few chapters of James or of Paul. The entire Bible, though 
costing two hundred dollars, was owned by many. Among 
the poor some with excellent memories committed parts 
of the Scripture to memory, and such were in frequent 
demand to recite their memorized Bible to little circles of 
the humble. 

(&) The New Learning. — The awakened interest in clas- 
sical studies in England primarily became a study of the 
Greek New Testament and a new zeal for religious educa- 
tion. Several new colleges at the universities were founded, 
that the new studies might be pursued. Colet lectured on 
Paul's Epistles in Greek at Oxford and later in London. 
He set forth in these lectures the doctrine of justification 
by faith. Erasmus, professor of Greek at Cambridge, 
published a critical edition of the New Testament. Sir 
Thomas More embodied some of the new religious views in 
his Utopia. Thomas Wolsey, prime minister of Henry 
VIII, encouraged the teaching of Greek, endowed the edu- 
cation of the clergy, founded Christ Church College at 
Oxford, and sought to reform the church along these edu- 
cational lines. All these efforts were accustoming the 
people to the reception of new ideas. Luther's writings by 
1521 were well known in the English universities and did 
much to quicken the hostility to the papacy. 

(c) The English Bible. — The gradual change of the Eng- 
lish language from the time of Wycliffe to the Reforma- 
tion period necessitated a new translation of the Scrip- 
tures. The invention of the printing press made the pro- 
ject a possible success. Although it was still an offense 
punishable by death at the stake to possess the Scriptures 
in the language of the people, there were not lacking men 
who risked life to place the Bible in the homes of England. 
The foremost of these was William Tyndale. 

William Tyndale.— As early as 1521, when a tutor in an 
English family, Tyndale was disputing with a priest who 
declared, "We were better without God's law than the 
pope's." Tyndale was roused to defy the pope and all his 
works and ended his retort by exclaiming : "If God spare 
my life, ere many years I will cause a boy that driveth the 

297 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

plow shall know more of the Scriptures than thou dost." 1 
Tyndale clung to his resolve, but there was no place in 
England where he could set about his task. He reached 
Hamburg in 1524 and there undertook the translation of 
the New Testament. Financial support for the enterprise 
came from Humphrey Monmouth, a merchant of London. 
In 1525 Tyndale was in Cologne, secretly engaged in get- 
ting his New Testament printed. Before the printing was 
completed, he was betrayed to the authorities; but he es- 
caped to Worms, carrying with him the partly printed 
copies. From this city, in 1526, six thousand copies of the 
New Testament were smuggled into England. English 
bishops made every effort to suppress these books. They 
were bought and burned, but the money received enabled 
Tyndale to issue a better edition. Twice was he able to 
print revisions of the New Testament, and in 1530 a trans- 
lation of the Pentateuch came from the press. While living 
at Antwerp in 1535 he was betrayed to the authorities. 
He was imprisoned in Vilvorde Castle, near Brussels, where 
he continued his translation of the Old Testament as far as 
2 Chronicles. After sixteen months he was condemned to 
death. He was strangled, and his body was burned. 

Tyndale's Work Lives On. — Tyndale might be strangled 
by an ignorant and blind church, but his work could not 
be silenced. The printing press and the eagerness of the 
people to read the Bible in their spoken tongue were forces 
before which bishops and princes were powerless. Tyndale 
more than any other person gave the characteristic shape 
to our English Bible. Even in the Revised Version of 1881 
80 per cent of the words stand precisely as they did in Tyn- 
dale's version of 1525. Many of the beautiful phrases 
now so familiar come from him; for example, "In him we 
live and move and have our being"; "turned to flight the 
armies of the aliens" ; "singing and making melody in your 
hearts." 

Miles Coverdale. — Coverdale, an Augustinian friar, in 
1528 preached a sermon that was regarded as heretical. 



1 History of the English Bible, Brown, page 39. 

298 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

Discarding the habit of his order, he fled to the continent, 
where, apparently, he assisted Tyndale with the publication 
of the Pentateuch. Tyndale succeeded in publishing of 
the Old Testament only the Pentateuch and Jonah. From 
1530 to 1535 Coverdale was somewhere on the continent 
translating and seeing through the press the entire Bible. 
A revised edition was printed two years later. In the mean- 
while a changed attitude toward the Bible in English had 
taken place in England. It was seen that the English 
Bible could not be suppressed; and, consequently, the 
church authorities were ready to approve a copy that was 
free from the objectionable glosses of Tyndale and Cover- 
dale. In 1537 the so-called "Matthew's Bible/' substantially 
a combination of Tyndale's and Coverdale's translations, 
appeared and was permitted to circulate freely. In 1539 
the "Great Bible/' a revision of Matthew's Bible, made by 
Coverdale, was printed and ordered by royal authority to be 
placed in every church of the realm, where it was freely to 
be read by all. 

Henry VIII. — It is one of the strange facts of history 
that the most powerful factor in England's revolt from 
Rome was a tyrannic king inspired by the basest of mo- 
tives. Henry did two valuable services for the English 
Reformation: He favored the heretics. In advancing 
bishops like Cranmer and Latimer he was favoring beliefs 
that would undermine the authority of Rome. In other 
ways he protected men who spoke openly against the evils in 
the church. But even this service was a part of his greater 
service in freeing England from the spiritual jurisdiction 
of the pope. This attitude to the Reformation and his 
momentous break with Rome were chiefly inspired in 
Henry by his passion for Anne Boleyn. In order to wed 
Anne, Henry sought a divorce from his wife Catherine. 
The long delay of the papal court to decide the suit led 
Henry to renounce papal jurisdiction. He declared him- 
self head of the English Church and won his divorce in 
the court of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The parlia- 
ment (1529-36^, packed and skillfully managed, responded 
ttf all the king's demands. The king was declared "The 

299 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

Supreme Head of the Church on Earth of the Church of 
England." Various acts were passed which centered 
church government in England in the crown. Men who re- 
sisted the usurpation were burned or beheaded. The mon- 
asteries, the chief upholders of papal supremacy, were sup- 
pressed, and their revenues alienated from the church by 
the king. 

The Extent of the English Reformation 

Under Henry. — The church under Henry did not greatly 
differ from the church that recognized the papal supremacy. 
The immediate act and results of the separation effected by 
the king were not a reformation at all. During the whole 
of his reign Henry adhered rather closely to the doctrines 
of the medieval church. Some of the more outstanding 
abuses were discarded. Purgatory and indulgences, images 
and relics, and pilgrimages were excluded. But the doc- 
trines of transubstantiation, celibacy of clergy, auricular 
confession, private masses, and the withholding of the cup 
from the laity were retained. Any denial or violation of 
these things was punishable by death. The chief reform 
service rendered by Henry was the authorization of the 
Bible in the English language. 

Under Edward VI (1547-53).— The Council of Regency, 
which ruled England in the name of the boy king, was 
more favorable to reform than Henry had been. Preaching 
was encouraged. Prayer books in English were authorized. 
The second prayer book of 1552, with some modifications, 
is the present prayer book of the Church of England. For- 
ty-two articles of religion stated the doctrines held. These 
in the reign of Elizabeth were reduced to thirty-nine, which 
are still held by the established church. 

Under Mary (1553-58). — Queen Mary was a Roman 
Catholic, and everything in her power was done to check the 
Reformation. All the reforming legislation was revoked. 
The English Church was again united to Eome. Persecu- 
tion of Protestants was severe. Nearly three hundred were 
burned. Among them were Bishops Eidley and Latimer 
and Archbishop Cranmer. Many fled from England to 

300 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

find refuge at Geneva and other Protestant cities of the 
continent. 

Ecclesiastics and the English Reformation 

Thomas Cranmer. — The story of the English revolt from 
Rome would be incomplete without some mention of the 
chief ecclesiastic in this stormy period. It was Cranmer 
who enabled Henry VIII to divorce Queen Catherine. By 
an unworthy subserviency he weathered the tyranny of his 
royal master, remained in office through Edward VFs 
reign, and was burned as a heretic under Mary. It fell to 
Cranmer to carry out the changes in the church which 
the break with Rome involved. Cranmer encouraged the 
use of the English Bible and compiled nearly the whole of 
the two prayer books. The forty-two articles of religion 
owe their form and style almost entirely to Cranmer. 

The Litany. — The beautiful Litany of the prayer book, 
still in use, is the language of Cranmer. The following 
sections indicate its spirit: 

We sinners do beseech thee that it may please thee to give 
us an heart to love and fear thee, and diligently to live after 
thy commandments: 

That it may please thee to strengthen such as do stand; 
and to comfort and help the weak-hearted; and to raise up 
those who fall; and finally to beat down Satan under our 
feet: 

That it may please thee to give us true repentance; to 
forgive us all our sins, negligences, and ignorance; and to 
endue us with the grace of thy Holy Spirit to amend our 
lives according to thy holy words. 

Cranmer's Martyrdom. — Under Queen Mary, Cranmer 
was deposed and sentenced to death. His prominent part 
in the divorce trial of Mary's mother, Queen Catharine, and 
his leadership of the Reformation condemned him to death. 
Before his sentence, induced by hopes of pardon, Cran- 
mer professed the Roman faith; but in his last hours he 
bitterly repented his weakness and, to indicate this, of his 
own accord thrust his right hand, which had written his 
denial of the reformed faith, into the fire and held it there 
until burned. Cranmer has been called the most mysteri- 

301 



APOSTLES, FATHEBS, AND BEFOEMEES 

ous figure of the Eeformation. He was the tool of Henry 
VIII but he favored the Eeformation of the church and 
by his death confirmed in men's minds that beneath all 
his political subserviency there was indeed the brave soul 
of the reformer. 

The Eeformation of Scotland 

Before Knox. — From Chapter XVIII it will be recalled 
that the Celtic monasteries of Ireland and Scotland were 
seats of learning. This educational spirit never wholly per- 
ished. In the fourteenth century Scottish students were 
at Oxford, where the influence of Wycliffe was most in- 
tense. They became imbued with the Lollard ideas, and 
these views lived on into the Eeformation. In 1494 thirty 
persons were summoned before King James IV for hold- 
ing heretical opinions. They were known as the "Lollards 
of Kyle." Hussite doctrines also made their way into Scot- 
land. Paul Cracaw, a Bohemian, was condemned to the 
fire in 1431. Lutheran writings reached the east coast 
towns by 1525, in which year the importation of such books 
was forbidden by Parliament. Tyndale's New Testament 
also found eager purchasers. From 1525 to 1542 heretics 
multiplied rapidly, and many executions took place. 

Under the Guidance of John Knox. — Knox was easily 
the foremost leader of the Scottish Eeformation. It is im- 
possible to overestimate his services to the Protestant cause. 
Without him the reformers of Scotland scarcely could have 
succeeded. 

(a) Early services (15J+2-51{) . — The infant Mary, Queen 
of Scots, entered into her rights to the Scottish throne in 
1542. Henry VIII, wishing to alienate Scotland from 
French influence, proposed a marriage of alliance between 
Edward VI and the infant queen. Those who were favor- 
ing the Eeformation favored the treaty with England. The 
English party in Scotland at first prevailed. But the 
Catholics and French sympathizers soon got the upper 
hand, and the treaties with England were revoked. Mary 
was sent to France to be educated, and persecution of 
heretics was renewed. John Knox, a priest, thirty-two 

302 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

years of age, accompanied George Wishart in preaching 
tours, which ended in the latter's death at the stake in 
1546. The reformers, to avenge his death, seized the 
Castle of Saint Andrews and put Cardinal Beaton, head 
of the Catholic party, to death. Knox, with many others, 
repaired to Saint Andrews, where Protestant services were 
established, and where Knox soon was induced to under- 
take preaching. In 1457 the French, to put down the 
Eeformation, attacked Saint Andrews, captured the place, 
and, treacherously refusing to carry out the terms of sur- 
render, sent most of the prisoners to the galleys. After 
nineteen months of inferno Knox, with the others, was 
released. During the next five years Knox was a minister 
in Berwick, New Castle, and London. 

(6) Knox at Geneva (155^-58). — These years abroad 
are summarized by Knox himself in his History of the 
Reformation of Religion in Scotland. Knox left England 
at the accession of Queen Mary : 

When the said John left England he then passed to Geneva 
and there remained at his privy study till that he was called 
by the English congregation that then was assembled at 
Frankfort to be preacher to them; which vocation he obeyed, 
albeit unwillingly, at the command of that notable servant 
of God, John Calvin; at Frankfort he remained till that 
some of the learned, whose names we suppress, more given 
to unprofitable ceremonies than to sincerity of religion, began 
to quarrel with the said John. The magistrate, perceiving 
their malice, gave advertisement secretly to him to depart 
their city; for they could not save him if he were required 
by the emperor or the queen of England in the emperor's 
name. And so the said John returned to Geneva. 

Knox returned to Scotland in 1555 for a brief visit. Then 
the English church at Geneva called him to be their min- 
ister. Here Knox remained until 1556, when he was sum- 
moned home by several of the Scottish nobility to lead them 
in the establishment of the Eeformation. 

The Scottish Reformation Accomplished 

The Church Organized (1558).— In 1557 the Protestants 
of Scotland banded themselves together to further the in- 

303 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

terests of the Reformation. These Covenanters came to be 
called the "Lords of the Congregation." It was this con- 
federacy which summoned Knox from Geneva. In 1558 
the Congregation decided upon an organization for the 
Protestant churches of Scotland. Elders were chosen by- 
election of the people. To these elders all promised obedi- 
ence. The Congregation petitioned the crown for liberty 
of worship in the newly forming churches. This was 
granted except in the cities of Leith and Edinburgh. 

The Armed Defense of the Protestant Faith. — This was 
determined upon by the Lords of the Congregation in 1559. 
It was resolved to maintain public worship according to 
the reformed faith in all towns where the Protestants 
were in the majority and to suppress the old church order 
in such communities. The regent and her Catholic sup- 
porters, assisted by the French troops, more than checked 
the reformers. Knox saw the necessity of alliance with 
England. An English fleet and navy compelled France to 
withdraw from Scotland. The Reformation had won. The 
Estates in 1560 voted that "the Bishop of Rome hath no 
jurisdiction nor authority in this realm in times coming." 

The Confession of Faith. — Knox and five companions 
prepared a statement of Protestant belief which was 
adopted by the Scottish Parliament in 1560. It expresses 
the beliefs dominant at Geneva. A constitution for the 
Reformed church was prepared by the same men. The 
church life was to be controlled and guided similarly to 
the methods adopted by the Protestants of France. Cal- 
vin's catechism was used to instruct the youth. Although 
there were still some stormy scenes with Mary, Queen of 
Scots, by 1560 the Reformation in Scotland was thoroughly 
established. There remained only the task of clarifying 
and establishing the regulations reached by 1560 and the 
training and disciplining of a ministry for the churches. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 

The English Reformation Political. — While there were 
reformers in England at the time who desired the correc- 
tion of church abuses and the establishment of the Protest- 

304 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH REFORMATION 

ant doctrines and theology, the nation as a whole sought no 
such changes. The Reformation in England was not reli- 
gious but political. It was brought about by an immoral 
tyrant who broke with Rome to pursue his passions un- 
hindered. Yet, evil as were Henry's motives and repre- 
hensible his conduct, his break with Rome worked for 
good. For the papacy, for any ecclesiastical system, to 
possess supreme authority among a people in the modern 
world is an evil thing. The powerful, self-willed king 
wrought a good work for his realm and for the English- 
speaking world. 

The Bible and liturgy. — The English Reformation 
greatly set forward the kingdom of God by giving to the 
English peoples the Scriptures in their own tongue. The 
student must be deeply impressed by this time that every 
purification of religion has been wrought by a return 
to the Scriptures. Tyndale, Coverdale, and Cranmer have 
won an imperishable place in the world's history. 

The Reformation in Scotland Calvinistic. — It set up in 
that kingdom the Calvinistic doctrines and church govern- 
ment. Presbyterianism, fashioned by Knox and his fellow 
reformers, has been a powerful moral force in English civ- 
ilization. Knox's interviews with his queen evidence the 
intense democracy that the reformed faith everywhere 
awakened. 

The Gospel Translated 

Good Lives Immortal. — Wycliffe's bones and books were 
burned, but his English Bible provoked a rebellion from 
Rome. Huss was burned, but his followers brought nearer 
the Scottish Reformation. Savonarola was quenched, but 
Dean Colet came from Italy to proclaim at Oxford that men 
are justified before God by faith. Tyndale was burned, 
but his vigorous English was followed by the American 
revisers. Coverdale was exiled, but his Psalms are in the 
prayer book. Cranmer died in flames, but his Litany has 
voiced the need of God in the lives of millions of his coun- 
trymen. Fire never stifles the truth; it purifies and im- 
mortalizes it. No good deed drops dead in the soil of 

305 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMERS 

human life. It lives and brings new goodness to harvest. 
Live good, true, brave lives; and no matter how much you 
now seem lonely and unknown, your pure living makes the 
Kingdom draw near. Other men on this earth shall praise 
you, and your eternal reward is sure. 

The Wrath of Men. — "The fierceness of man shall turn 
to thy praise" is Coverdale's translation of the tenth verse 
of the seventy-sixth Psalm. Could he have been thinking 
of Henry VIII? God surely rules his world. This king 
broke with Eome to make an immoral marriage. He was a 
tyrant who bent his generation to his will. Yet God turned 
his willfulness into good for England. How helpless evil 
eventually becomes ! Nero set up tarred Christians to il- 
lumine his gardens, but the light of their martyrdom flares 
in our souls. Jesus was crucified, but he passed from Cal- 
vary to his throne. 

A New Translation of the Scriptures. — The Scriptures 
must be translated out of the language of admiration into 
the language of daily thinking and doing. No enduring 
civilization will rise upon our crumbling materialism until 
the gospel is enthroned in life. The change from selfish 
to fraternal ideals and practices in commercial and civic 
affairs will be empowered alone by the loftier experiences of 
religion. When we begin to seek God we turn with new 
zest to the Bible. Although the Scriptures do not reveal 
the whole will of God they show the way to God. They re- 
count the struggle through which men have passed to know 
God and the martyrdoms suffered to keep their high vision 
of holy fellowship. They present an ideal estimate of life, 
indicate the desirable goals, and give permanent value to 
those spiritual promptings which protest against the slavery 
of the physical world. It is not enough to speak the name 
of Christ reverently; nothing less than the reproduction 
of the spirit of Christ will save the world. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. Consider whether the New Learning and the English 
Bible would have worked a reformation in England apart 
from Henry VIII. 

306 



ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH KEFORMATION 

2. Men like Colet, Cardinal Wolsey, Erasmus, and Sir 
Thomas More hoped that the New Learning would reform the 
church without a break with Rome: why were such hopes 
doomed to disappointment? 

3. Consider whether even the powerful Henry could have 
renounced papal supremacy apart from the influences of Lol- 
lardry, the New Learning, and the circulation of the Bible 
and other literature antagonistic to Rome. 

4. What reforms in the church were tolerated by King 
Henry? 

5. In what distinct way does the English Reformation differ 
from the Reformation in other lands? 

6. Estimate the services of Cranmer to the church. 

7. Why was Queen Mary unable permanently to check the 
English Reformation? 

8. Trace the various influences that prepared Scotland for 
the Reformation. 

9. What influences prepared Knox to become the chief re- 
former of Scotland? 

10. What were his chief services to his native land? 

11. What forms of doctrine and government were taken by 
Protestantism in Scotland? 

12. What services were rendered to the Scottish reformers 
by England? 

13. Why should the state, and not the church, possess the 
supreme authority? 

14. Had a Henry VIII sat on the French throne in the early 
sixteenth century, what possible different destiny might have 
come to the Huguenots? 

15. What persons do you consider to have contributed most 
to the Reformation in England and Scotland? 

16. What contribution has been made to the Kingdom by 
the Scottish Reformation? 

Eeferences for Beading 

Articles "Reformation," "Henry VIII," "Anne Boleyn," 
"Cranmer," "England, Church of," etc., in Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

Article "Church of England" in Encyclopaedia of Religion 
and Ethics. 

Protestant Thought Before Kant, McGiffert, pages 119-40. 

The Reformation in the Lands Beyond Germany, Lindsay, 
pages 274-384. 

Cambridge Modern History, Volume II, Chapters XIII, XIV, 
XVI. 

The Psalter in the Prayer Book of the Episcopal Church is 
Coverdale's translation. 

History of the English Bible, Westcott, pages 24-102. 

307 



CHAPTEE XXV 

THE PUKITAN IN ENGLAND 

Puritanism embraces both an attitude of religion and a 
political theory. In religion it is not to be identified with 
a particular form of church government: Puritans were 
found among the Episcopalians but they for the most part 
adhered to the Presbyterian or Congregational forms of 
the government of the church. In doctrines they were us- 
ually Calvinists. They might be members of Presbyterian, 
Congregational, Baptist, Anabaptist, or Quaker Church 
societies. Politically they favored the rights and liberties 
of the people and opposed the encroachments of royal 
authority. 

The Beginnings of English Puritanism 

The Influence of Calvin.— During Queen Mary's reign 
those who had been prominent in the reform of the church 
and who would not belie their beliefs fled to the continent. 
There, especially in Geneva, they responded sympathetically 
to the doctrines and church government of Calvin. When 
Elizabeth came to the throne, these exiles returned home. 

Church Reforms. — Parliament restored to the crown the 
authority over the church exercised by Henry VIII. The 
prayer book of 1552, with some revisions, was ordered used 
in the churches. This book enjoined the use of certain vest- 
ments and ceremonies. The returned reformers objected 
to these things. Likewise, they favored a stricter moral 
life and a correction of church abuses. The queen and her 
nobles were impoverishing the church; bishops and parish 
ministers were not adequately cared for. These men, who 
had learned the excellence of the presbyterial church rule, 
now steadily advocated this form of church government for 
England. Ministers with these views met in conferences, 
called "prophesyings," to quicken within themselves a 

308 



THE PURITAN IN ENGLAND 

deeper spiritual life. These and other manifestations of 
ultra reform were checked toward the end of Elizabeth's 
reign. 

The Chief Ecclesiastical Forms of Puritanism 

Presbyterianism. — The various Parliamentary acts under 
Elizabeth deprived many ministers of their churches. Dur- 
ing 1567-68 congregations were organized on the Genevan 
plan under the guidance of some of the suspended minis- 
ters. In 1571 Parliament recognized the orders of clergy- 
men who had not been episcopally ordained. The first Pres- 
bytery in England was organized in 1572. From 1574 most 
of the Protestant nonconformists strove steadily to intro- 
duce Presbyterianism. During the reigns of James I and 
Charles I, Presbyterianism became the dominant ecclesias- 
tical expression of Puritanism. In 1643 Parliament sup- 
pressed the episcopal form of church government and in 
1646 established Presbyterianism. In 1643 Parliament 
called together a number of ministers, two from each 
county, to advise the government on church affairs. Those 
favoring Presbyterianism predominated in this assembly. 
They issued a confession of faith known as the Westminster 
Confession, a Directory for the Guidance of Public Wor- 
ship, and a Catechism. The Confession of Faith and the 
Catechism have been the standards of belief for Presby- 
terianism in all English-speaking lands. All churches of 
Anglo-Saxon peoples, except the Church of England and 
the Protestant Episcopal, are debtors in their forms 
of public worship to the Directory of 1643. Presbyterian- 
ism never has been truly congenial to England. From the 
beginning of the eighteenth century English Presbyterian- 
ism for the most part became Unitarian in doctrine and 
Congregational in government. The membership of the 
Presbyterian Churches of England now is mostly Scotch. 

Congregationalism. — In 1570 the Congregational ideal 
of church government was expressed in a manifesto The 
True Marks of a Christian Church: Essential Congrega- 
tionalism, pure Christian fellowship and moral life, re- 
quire separation from the established church. Those who 

309 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND EEFOEMEKS 

held this view were called separatists. Eobert Browne, 
1580, defined the separatist, or Congregational, belief. The 
church, he held, is a group of persons who have definitely 
entered into a covenant with God and with each other to 
live according to Christ's gospel: every church member is 
a spiritual person who partakes of the office of king, priest, 
and prophet. Such a community of spiritual persons is 
warranted by their divine inspiration to choose ministers 
and other church officers ; the government has no authority 
to rule the inner life of the church. Congregational 
churches were first organized in London in 1586. Perse- 
cution followed, and they passed over to Amsterdam. The 
Congregationalists of Scrooby and Gainsborough exiled 
themselves to Holland. The Scrooby church moved to 
Leiden in 1609. From this city the Pilgrims set forth 
in 1620 to the New World. Congregationalism was fa- 
vored by Cromwell but was persecuted under later sov- 
ereigns. But it has continued and, reenforced with new 
evangelistic spirit by early Methodism, has entered with 
new power into the modern day. 

The Keligious and Moral Convictions of Puritanism 

Followers of Calvin. — The Puritan, of whatever denom- 
ination, was a Calvinist in theology and in the austerity of 
his morals. Authority in religion rested in the Scriptures. 
Nothing they did not prescribe could he tolerate. His 
opponents claimed that a church could authorize forms, 
ceremonies, and offices that were not forbidden by the 
Scriptures. The Puritan, moved by an overwhelming sense 
of the judgment and of the glories of heaven, emphasized 
a stern repression of sensual delights. Bunyan, in one of 
his scenes in the Interpreter's House, expresses the spirit 
with which Puritanism viewed the things of the world : 

The Interpreter took him by the hand and led him into a 
little room, where sat two little children, each one in his 
chair. The name of the eldest was Passion, and the name of 
the other Patience. Passion seemed to be much discontented, 
but Patience was very quiet. Then Christian asked, "What 
is the reason of the discontent of Passion?" The Interpreter 
answered, "The governor of them would have him stay for 

310 



THE PURITAN IN ENGLAND 

his best things till the beginning of next year, but he "will 
have all now; but Patience is willing to wait." Then I saw 
that one came to Passion, one brought him a bag of treas- 
ures and poured it down at his feet: the which he took up 
and rejoiced therein and withal laughed Patience to scorn. 
But I beheld but a while, and he had lavished all away and 
had nothing left him but rags. 

The Puritans Stern Moralists. — The heroic mold in 
which Puritanism cast its people is seen in the words of 
William Bradford, governor of Plymouth, who at thirteen 
years of age renounced the established church, saying to his 
relatives : "To keep a good conscience and walk in such a 
way as God has prescribed in his Word is a thing which 
I must prefer above you all and above life itself. Yes, I 
am not only willing to part with everything that is dear 
to me in this world for this cause, but I am so thankful 
that God hath given me a heart so to do and will accept me 
so to suffer for him." 1 

Political Puritanism 

The Development of a Puritan Party. — The Eeformation 
was a new emphasis of the individual, and this emphasis in 
civil life was an awakening democracy. Parallel with the 
development of the Eeformed faith in England arose men 
who contended lor the constitutional rights and liberties 
of the people against the encroachments of the crown. Dur- 
ing the reign of Elizabeth men with Puritan beliefs were 
returned to Parliament, and this element in the House of 
Commons repeatedly introduced measures to curb the royal 
authority in ecclesiastical affairs. During the reign of 
James I the Commons became increasingly Puritan. Upon 
the basis of the somewhat democratic life of the Middle 
Ages the sovereigns of various nations were building up an 
absolutism, claiming to rule by divine authority. In Eng- 
land the sovereign appointed the bishops, who in turn de- 
fended the absolutism of the king. With the established 
church on the side of absolutism the English gentry more 
and more accepted the Puritan views to resist more solidly 
the royal encroachment upon their liberties. 

i Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, page 6. 

311 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFOKMEKS 

The Rise of the Independents. — As late as 1641 most of 
those who were ranging themselves against the royal ab- 
solutism and the Episcopal Church, which favored the 
king, supported the movement toward Presbyterian church 
government. But the Presbyterians, with increase of power, 
were adverse to all forms of worship except their own. The 
Congregationalists, Baptists, Anabaptists, and others were 
seeking liberty of worship, and there was formed a political 
party known as Independents, who, advocating no estab- 
lished form of Puritan worship, still were struggling for 
civil and religious liberty. Among the early Independents 
were Cromwell, Sir Henry Vane, and John Milton. These 
men contended that any individual or group of persons 
should have the right to worship according to their beliefs. 
When the civil war began between the parliamentary army 
and the king, the Presbyterians began to favor Charles I 
and were bargaining with him to seat him again on the 
throne. Under the leadership of Cromwell the Independ- 
ents expelled the Presbyterians from Parliament; and 
Cromwell, supported by the Independents, assumed the gov- 
ernment of England. Presbyterianism and Congregation- 
alism express distinct types of Puritan church government, 
while Presbyterians and Independents stand for two op- 
posing conceptions of the relation of church and state 
and two factions of political Puritanism in the times of 
Charles I and Cromwell. 

Typical Puritans 

Oliver Cromwell. — The outstanding political figure of 
Puritanism is Oliver Cromwell. He and his place in Eng- 
land are the expansion of a larger Calvin and Genevan 
state. Cromwell disciplined his army, won his battles, sent 
Charles I to the block, and ruled well-nigh autocratically 
in England; and these acts were the expressions of the 
conviction that he was the instrument of the Most High in 
the setting up of a new life order among the English peo- 
ple. Cromwell's labors seem canceled by the restoration of 
the monarchy and the episcopacy under Charles II; but 
out of Cromwell's wars and reign two fundamental prln- 

312 



THE PUKITAN IN ENGLAND 

ciples of Protestantism, which had not yet been truly 
expressed, struggled out of the medieval darkness into the 
modern day. These principles are toleration and the church 
free from state control. Despite all reaction English 
civilization never again returned to the absolutism of 
Charles I. 

John Milton. — Next to Cromwell the triumph of English 
Puritanism owes most to John Milton. Milton was the 
foremost scholar of his day, and not only was his great 
genius at the disposal of Cromwell in affairs of state but 
in his poetry he is representative of English Puritanism. 
In 1641 Milton, in his tract Of Reformations Concerning 
Church Discipline, appealed to his countrymen to put an 
end to episcopacy and all attendant practices that still 
related the Church of England to Borne. Two weeks after 
Charles I was beheaded, Milton sent forth his printed mes- 
sage Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in which he con- 
tends that it is the duty of any who have the power to 
crush a tyrant. Henceforth he was a needed man in the 
commonwealth. He became Latin Secretary in 1641, and 
thereafter Cromwell looked to him not only to conduct the 
correspondence with other nations but for every sort of 
literary help which his genius could give the common- 
wealth. 

Milton's Puritanism. — Milton's Puritanism was more 
radical and liberal than the views held by other leaders of 
his day. He disapproved of any form of established 
church. Pure Christianity, he thought, could not flourish 
with a state-paid clergy ; the extension of the gospel should 
be left to churches and their voluntarily chosen and sup- 
ported pastors. Milton's Puritan doctrine was a modified 
Calvinism. Eor him, as for Calvin, God is all in all, 
and the most terrible evil that befalls man is to be sepa- 
rated from God. But Milton saw wider ranges in man's 
freedom and responsibility and more reality in the offer 
of Christ's redemption. 

The Puritan Attitude Toward English Episcopacy. — The 
following quotation from Of Reformations Touching 
Church Discipline in England illustrates both Milton's 

313 



APOSTLES, FATHEES, AND EEFOEMEES 

prose style and the Puritan feeling toward English epis- 
copacy : 

Thou, therefore, that sittest in light and glory, Parent of 
Angels and Men, look upon this thy poor and almost spent 
and expiring church; leave her not thus a prey to these im- 
portunate wolves, that wait and think long till they devour 
thy tender Flock, these wild Boars that have broke into thy 
Vineyard and left the print of their polluting hoofs on the 
Souls of thy Servants. Oh, let them not bring about their 
damned designs, that stand now at the entrance of the bot- 
tomless pit expecting the Watchword to open and let out 
those dreadful Locusts and Scorpions to reinvolve us in 
that pitchy cloud of infernal darkness where we shall never 
more hear the Bird of the Morning sing. 

Milton's Modified Calvinism. — The following lines from 
Paradise Lost indicate something of Milton's modified Cal- 
vinism. The Father is here speaking to the Son, while 
Satan is on his journey to earth to seduce man. Milton 
contends for man's full free will : 

"So will fall 
He and his faithless progeny. Whose fault? 
Whose but his own? Ingrate, he had of me 
All he could have; I made him just and right, 
Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall." 2 

Milton contends that those who will may be saved. Yet 
even his genius was not able to perfectly harmonize the 
irreconcilable conceptions of man's free will and God's pre- 
destinating choice for his creatures : 

"Man shall not quite be lost, but saved who will; 
Yet not of will in him, but grace in me 
Freely vouchsafed. . . . 
Some I have chosen of peculiar grace, 
Elect above the rest; so is my will: 
The rest shall hear me call and oft be warned 
Their sinful state, and to appease betimes 
The incensed Deity, while offered grace 
Invites. . . . 

They who neglected and scorn shall never taste; 
But hard be hardened, blind be blinded more, 
That they may stumble on, and deeper fall; 
And none but such from mercy I exclude." 2 

a Book III. 

314 



THE PURITAN" IN ENGLAND 

John Bunyan. — The Puritanism of the common people 
appears in Bunyan. The terrible mental stress through 
which Calvinism might lead morally earnest men to the 
peaceful assurance of their election is seen in the author 
of Grace Abounding and Pilgrim's Progress. Bunyan 
served in the parliamentary army and was thoroughly com- 
mitted to the Puritan cause. He became a preacher of 
the Baptist Church, was sent to the Bedford jail, wrote his 
immortal allegory, was liberated by Cromwell's tolerancy, 
and traveled widely preaching and exhorting the churches. 
He was lovingly called "Bishop" Bunyan. His Pilgrim's 
Progress has been called "the fine flower of Puritan the- 
ology and experience." 

Bunyan's Writings. — The splendor of Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress has obscured Bunyan's Holy War, the world's second 
greatest allegory. Consider the rare imagery and popular 
appeal in Bunyan's putting of certain Puritan beliefs : 

In this gallant Country of Universe is a fair and delicate 
town called Mansoul. . . . There was reared up in the 
midst of this town a most famous and stately Palace: for 
strength it might be called a Castle; for pleasantness, a Para- 
dise. This place King Shaddai intended but for himself 
alone. . . . The wall of the Town was well built — yea, so 
fast and firm was it knit and compact together that, had it 
not been for the townsmen themselves, it could not have been 
shaken or broken forever. 

It will be a rare delight for any who will follow Bunyan 
in his description of the surrender of the town to Giant 
Diabolus and the evils that followed, the assault of the 
city by Prince Emanuel, and the eternal alliance of this 
Prince with the citizens of Mansoul by which their safety 
and peace are secured. His Pilgrim's Progress is a book 
to be read by all. One can never forget it. It lights up 
our own pilgrimage to the Celestial City. The Puritan the- 
ology that inspired it may no longer appeal to us, but it 
will set us traveling along the great highroad of true living 
with new hope and strength beating in our souls. 

Summary : The Coming Kingdom 
What Did the Puritan Accomplish ? — The Puritan trans- 

315 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

formed the political reformation under the English sov- 
ereigns into a religious quickening of English life. He 
vitalized in England the best of the Reformation wrought 
out on the Continent. He became the mouthpiece of Cal- 
vin to the English-speaking world. He separated church 
and state and introduced religious toleration. He gave new 
force to several fundamental Christian ideas — an emphasis 
that has not disappeared from the world. 

Ancient Teaching Vitalized. — The Puritan awoke in 
England a new consciousness of God. He became a new 
reality to vast multitudes: a divine Sovereign whose al- 
mighty will, disobeyed, wrought endless disaster among 
men. Sin ceased to be a light word. It meant alienation 
from God, ruin and vast despair, a slavery whose chains 
only God himself could break. Justice, righteousness, and 
purity were given new content and reality. Men felt within 
them the grand and irresistible spirit of God giving them 
power to attack evil victoriously. If any men ever have felt 
God within them, the Puritans did. 

The Puritan Influence. — Puritanism as a political power 
did not long endure. Its religious spirit and moral con- 
victions continue in large measure with us. Puritanism, 
transplanted to New England, shaped in great measure 
American institutions. In education, church forms, moral 
convictions, and religious beliefs American Protestantism 
owes much to the men whom Cromwell once led to set 
up in England what the Puritan believed to be a govern- 
ment of God. 

The Call of God 

Called of God. — The soul of the Puritan was fashioned 
by the conviction that God had spoken to him and assigned 
him his task. So Cromwell believed in the execution of the 
king. So Milton in his blindness strove to figure forth the 
wars of earth and paradise. So Bunyan held as he lay 
dreaming in Bedford jail. The triumph of such men does 
not depend on the task of which they feel themselves sum- 
moned. Men often mistake the end of a journey. It is 
not the goal that counts in the building of character; 

316 



THE PUEITAN IN ENGLAND 

it is the acceptance of commissions, duties, and tasks as 
coming from God. It is the obedience to such call at any 
personal sacrifice which builds the world. The voice of 
God ever is calling men and women. That others have 
misunderstood his will is no excuse for delay or disobedi- 
ence. We are not to be judged by future centuries but 
by our own. Hell is the issue not of ignorance but of 
unapplied wisdom. 

Do Not Shrink From Difficulty. — You have the Puritan's 
heroism within you. Deep in your soul, an elemental part 
of your being, lies the power to fling yourself at the hazard 
of life into the championship of a great cause. You may 
subvert this strength of devotion to business, social pleas- 
ures, the cultivation of popularity, or the pursuit of 
fashions of food and dress. But to do such things will 
keep you in the ranks of the commonplace world. If you 
go about the world seeking easy things to do, you will find 
them ; but when you find them you will have lost the great- 
ness out of your own soul. Study any great life and you 
will find that it is in difficulties, in struggles, in the front- 
ing of perils, in the drive ahead into ghastly possibilities, 
in the forward look with spirit unafraid, that the great 
souls have been formed. 



Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What circumstances led to the introduction of Calvin's 
views into England? 

2. What form of church government was advocated by 
Calvin? 

3. What were the objections of those Englishmen who 
came under Calvin's influence to the Church of England dur- 
ing the reign of Elizabeth? 

4. What was the Puritan attitude toward the Scriptures? 

5. What were his characteristic views of God? sin? his 
attitude toward the outward things of life? 

6. What forms of church government did he advocate? 

7. What Puritan views were expressed in Paradise Lost? 

8. What was Bunyan's great service to the Puritan cause? 

9. What conditions compelled the Puritans to form a 
political party? 

10. What services were rendered the Puritan cause by 

317 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

political Presbyterianism? by the Independents? In what way 
could Milton and Cromwell justify the execution of Charles I? 

11. To what extent did the political ascendency of Puritan- 
ism contribute to the coming of the Kingdom? 

12. The Puritan, especially the Congregationalists, con- 
tended for the separation of church and state. Has this 
separation made for the coming of the Kingdom? 

13. Consider to what extent the Puritan's aversion to lit- 
urgy and vestments still appears in the churches. Has this 
rejection of ceremonial advanced or hindered the progress 
of Christianity? 

14. What was wrong with the Puritan Sabbath? In what 
way could we improve our observance of Sunday? 

Reading References 

Articles "Anabaptists," "Bunyan," "Cromwell," "Congrega- 
tionalism," "Milton," "Puritanism," "Presbyterian," 
"Browne," "Brownism," in Encyclopedia Britannica and En* 
cyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 457-78. 

Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, Carlyle. 

Studies in Mystical Religion, Jones, pages 396-427. 

Cambridge Modern History, Volume II, Chapter XVI; Vol- 
ume III, Chapter X; Volume IV, Chapters VIII-XII. 



318 



CHAPTEE XXVI 

THE PEOTESTANT AND THE BOMAN-CATHOLIC 

IDEAL 

In this chapter are presented a summary of the beliefs, 
spirit, and purposes, so far as they can be generally charac- 
terized, which animated the Protestant world at the close 
of the Eeformation period; the efforts within the Boman 
Catholic Church to reform its life and preserve its powers ; 
and a sketch of the spirit of this church at the threshold 
of the twentieth century. Such a study points out the 
wide chasm between Protestantism and Eomanism and in- 
dicates the field wherein Kingdom movements may be 
expected. 

The Protestant Ideal 

Emphasis Upon Moral Living. — The Protestant spirit 
in every case was awakened by the moral laxity of the 
church. It was the sexual immorality of the clergy, the 
universal graft in connection with offices in the church, the 
supernatural claims of the priesthood, coupled with arro- 
gance, ignorance, drunkenness, cruelty, and other forms 
of worldliness which became the starting point of all the 
reformers. Waldo was possessed by the belief that the 
Christian must reproduce the moral life of Christ ; Wycliffe 
was aroused by the avarice, the hypocrisy, the lust, and the 
shallow conception of sin which prevailed in the mendi- 
cant orders; Luther was aroused by the papal greed that 
turned the deep mysteries of forgiveness into brazen com- 
mercialism; Calvin, Knox, and the Puritans were unbend- 
ing moralists. Protestantism brought home to the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries the fact that religion cannot be 
divorced from morals. This high moral fervor ever has 
been characteristic of the Protestant churches. Individual 

319 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

purity of life and social reform are outstanding character- 
istics of the Protestant ideal. 

The Sacred Scriptures. — The moral passion that revolted 
against the decadent church life of the Reformation cen- 
turies returned with new interest and confidence to the 
Bible. It was the effort of the reformers, by a return to the 
source of Christianity, to justify their condemnation of 
the prevalent church life. Everywhere they encouraged 
the use of the Scriptures and appealed to them as the high- 
est authority to which bishops and princes must yield. 
Wycliffe translated the Bible into English; Luther gave 
them to his humblest countrymen; Calvin turned to them 
to defy his king and to construct his theology; Knox 
launched the Scottish Reformation by appeal to the Scrip- 
tures; and the Puritans built their commonwealth upon 
that foundation. The Bible was given a place such as it 
never before had held in the church. It, instead of the 
pope, became the final authority for vast multitudes of 
once faithful subjects of the Romish hierarchy. 

The Essence of Religion. — In the medieval church the 
essence of religion was obedience to the constituted religious 
authorities. The layman had no direct dealings with God. 
He was not expected to confess his sins to his heavenly 
Father nor to live by .any precious consciousness of fellow- 
ship with him. Religion was mediated to him by the priest. 
The return to the Scriptures was encouraged by and in 
return gave new emphasis to the feeling that man, as man, 
is a member of the family of God ; and that, as a follower 
of Christ, he may make his way directly to God to find the 
forgiveness and to enjoy the fellowship of his Father. All 
the reformers put aside priestly mediation ; they considered 
the church of God to be a democratic commonwealth and 
not an aristocracy or a monarchy. The reformers ushered 
in a new day for the common man. Henceforth religion 
for the thoughtful and the courageous could be no more an 
unthinking subserviency to sacred persons, ceremonies, and 
mysteries, but a joyous and dutiful fellowship of children 
with their Father in heaven. 

The Nature of the Church. — The conception of the 

320 



PKOTESTANT AND CATHOLIC IDEAL 

church and its relation to the kingdom of God which in 
general characterizes the Protestant world is a total break 
with the medieval church and is irreconcilable with modern 
Eoman-Catholic teaching. The reformers, in emphasizing 
moral living and justification before God by faith in his 
merciful promises and gracious nature, gave expression to 
three revolutionary ideas of the church : 

(a) The membership of the church. — The church pre- 
vious to the Eeformation often meant no more than the 
pope and the hierarchy of priests subordinate to him. In 
its widest meaning it included those who acknowledged the 
papal authority. The reformers broke with this external 
delimitation of the church. Luther defines the church as 
follows : "I believe that there is on earth, through the whole 
wide world, no more than one holy, common Christian 
church, which is nothing else than a congregation, or assem- 
bly, of the saints — that is, the pious, believing men on 
earth — which is gathered, preserved, and ruled by the Holy 
Spirit and daily increased by means of the sacraments and 
the Word of God." 1 Here are to be found two conceptions 
of the church wholly at variance with the Eoman position: 
Church membership is defined (1) by relation to God, and 
not by relation to any human being; (2) by piety of life, 
and not by a political relationship. These principles were 
characteristic of all the reformers. This was the position of 
Calvin and the Presbyterians and the various separatists of 
England. 

(6) Government of the church. — All the reformers broke 
with the papal absolutism ; but Luther and the majority of 
the English reformers merely substituted the state for the 
papacy. Yet Luther, in doing so, did not carry out to 
logical conclusion the principles he had enunciated; it 
remained for Calvin, Knox, and the various Separatists of 
England to insist that the authority of the church was resi- 
dent in the Christian congregation itself. Early English 
Congregationalism taught that all persons who worshiped 
God in accord with the Scriptures were spiritually minded, 



* Works, Volume II, page 373. 

321 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

and, when such were gathered into congregations, their col- 
lective spiritual life constituted a church and warranted 
them to choose such officers and establish such discipline as 
was needful to further true religion. The logical conclusion 
of the Reformation is a democratic church life, whether 
such life is administered under episcopal, presbyterial, or 
congregational forms. 

(c) The sacraments. — The medieval church ascribed to 
the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper a value 
wholly independent of the mind and heart of the recipient. 
They were efficacious works performed by the priest. The 
Eucharist was a sacrifice ; the real flesh and blood of Christ 
were offered anew in every mass by the priest for the for- 
giveness of sins. These views were mechanical, unscrip- 
tural, unreasonable, and unrelated to life. While the re- 
formers differed in their views in some particulars, they 
agreed that the efficacy of the sacrament depended on the 
faith and life of the recipient. "To seek the efficacy of 
the sacrament apart from faith is to labor in vain and to 
find damnation." This word of Luther's is the constant 
Protestant note with all the reformers. 

The Ideal of the Roman Catholic Church 

The Counter Reformation. — There were many earnest 
advocates of church reform who did not unite themselves 
with the great Reformation movement which gave to the 
world the Protestant churches. The success of the Re- 
formation in wresting vast multitudes from the Roman 
Church aroused even the most stupid among the Catholics 
to see the necessity of doing something to prevent the entire 
ancient system from going to pieces. This effort to reform 
the Roman Catholic Church from within is termed the 
Counter Reformation. 

(a) Early efforts at reform. — The spirit of the Roman- 
Catholic reformers is fully seen in the changes accomplished 
in the church in Spain. The prolonged strife with the 
Moors so strengthened civil rulers that the ecclesiastical 
authorities ever were subordinated to the state. Ferdinand 
and Isabella, responding to the widespread feeling that 

322 



PKOTESTANT AND CATHOLIC IDEAL 

the church should be reformed, set about to purge from 
the Spanish Church those evils which were the common 
scandal of Christendom. Ximenes, a Franciscan monk, 
was given authority by the sovereigns to carry out his plan 
of reform. He visited the monasteries and established in 
them the strictest discipline. The priests in charge of 
parishes were admonished or removed until a clergy was 
obtained free from moral blame. Utterly ignorant priests 
were deprived of their benefices; schools of theology were 
established; scholars were called to new chairs in old uni- 
versities; and the whole moral life of the Spanish Church 
was aroused to finer achievements. But there was no break 
with the theology or the institutions of the medieval church. 

(.6) The Council of Trent. — It was this Spanish concep- 
tion of a reformation — the reform of morals within the old 
institutionalism and creeds — which prompted and carried 
through the Council of Trent. This council was convened 
by the pope in Trent, Austria, in 1545 and continued, with 
several interruptions, until 1563. The chief concern of the 
council was to determine more rigidly and authoritatively 
those doctrines of the medieval church which had been at- 
tacked by the Protestants. The supreme effort was made 
to yield nothing to Protestant theology and "to emerge 
from the purgatory of the council as far as possible un- 
changed — that is, having all its customs, practices, pre- 
tensions, and sins." 

The Tridentine Faith. — The Council of Trent prepared 
the way for the Profession of the Tridentine Faith, pub- 
lished in 1564 and made obligatory upon all Eoman Cath- 
olics. The following articles, chosen from the twelve that 
constituted this creed, indicate its spirit. This creed is still 
binding upon all members of the Eoman Church : 

(a) Concerning the Scriptures. — It will be noted that 
the article strikes at the Protestant contention that the 
Bible should be freely interpreted and read by every Chris- 
tian. Article III: 

I also admit the Holy Scriptures according to that sense 
which our Holy Mother Church has held, and does hold, to 
which it belongs to judge of the true sense and interpreta- 

323 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

tion of the Scriptures; neither will I ever take and interpret 
them otherwise than according to the unanimous consent 
of the Fathers. 

(6) The church. — The authoritative Roman creed makes 
no change in the medieval conception of the church. The 
church in Rome is "mistress of all churches," and the Ro- 
man Church is essentially the pope himself. Membership 
in the church is not denoted by piety of life, nor by the in- 
dividual's relation to God. Article X : 

I acknowledge the holy catholic apostolic Roman Church 
as the mother and mistress of all churches and I promise and 
swear true obedience to the Bishop of Rome as the suc- 
cessor of Saint Peter, prince of the apostles, and as the 
vicar of Christ. 

(c) The sacraments. — The Protestant attack upon the 
sacraments made no change in the official Roman position. 
The seven sacraments — baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, 
penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony — 
were retained, and their efficacy assigned to priestly media- 
tion. The Eucharist is defined as a sacrifice, and it is af- 
firmed that the priest in his celebration of the mass trans- 
forms wine and bread into blood and body of Christ. 
Article VI: 

I profess that in the mass there is offered to God a true, 
proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead; 
and that in the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist there 
is truly and substantially the body and blood, together with 
the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ; and that 
there is made a change of the whole essence of the bread into 
the body and of the whole essence of the wine into the blood. 

(d) Purgatory. — No change was made in the medieval 
conception of purgatory. The length of stay in purgatory 
depends on the number of masses said for the individual by 
the living (Article VIII). Prayers to saints are author- 
ized and recommended (Article VIII). Relics of the saints 
are to be venerated (Article VIII). Idolatry is retained in 
the church. Article IX : 

I most firmly assert that the images of Christ and of the 
perpetual Virgin, the Mother of God, and also of other saints 

324 



PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC IDEAL 

ought to be had and retained, and that due honor and venera- 
tion are to given them. 

In spite of all abuses of indulgences and the fact that the 
scandals in connection with them precipitated the Reforma- 
tion, and contrary to all historical fact, the creed, Article 
IX, asserts: 

I also affirm that the power of indulgences was left by 
Christ in the church, and that the use of them is most whole- 
some to Christian people. 

(e) The church and the Kingdom. — This creed identifies 
the Roman Catholic Church with the kingdom of God on 
earth. Compare with Luther's definition of the church 
these words from Article XII : 

I do at this present freely profess and truly hold this true 
Catholic faith, without which no one can be saved. 

Papal Infallibility. — While the supreme authority of the 
Roman bishop over all other bishops had been the conten- 
tion of the popes for centuries, and while this position of 
the papacy was tacitly admitted in the Council of Trent, it 
was not until the Vatican Council of 1870 that the popes 
were in position to have this contention written into the 
constitution of the Roman Church. It was now decreed 
that the pope, in faith, morals, and in disciplining power, 
is the infallible teacher and supreme ruler of the Christian 
world : 

(a) Supreme ruler. — Part of the decree reads as follows : 

We teach and declare that, by the appointment of our Lord, 
the Roman Church possesses a superiority of ordinary power 
over all other churches, and that this power of jurisdiction 
of the Roman pontiff, which is truly episcopal, is immediate; 
to which all, of whatever rite and dignity . . . are bound 
to submit not only in matters which belong to faith and 
morals but also in those that appertain to the discipline and 
government of the church throughout the world . . . This 
is the teaching of Catholic truth, from which no man can 
deviate without loss of faith and salvation. 

(b) Infallible teacher. — The words of the decree which 
define this dogma run : 

325 



APOSTLES, FATHEKS, AND KEFORMERS 

We teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed 
that the Roman pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra — that is, 
when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all 
Christians, by virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he 
defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by 
the universal church — by the divine assistance promised to 
him in blessed Peter is possessed of that infallibility with 
which the divine Redeemer willed that his church should be 
endowed for defining doctrine regarding faith or morals. 

(c) Facing the past. — The spirit of the Roman-Catholic 
ideal is expressed in one of the sentences of this decree : 

For the Holy Spirit was not promised to the successors of 
Peter, that by his revelation they might make known new 
doctrine but by his assistance they might inviolably keep and 
faithfully expound the revelation or deposit of faith delivered 
through the apostles. 

It is a sad thing to face the past alone, especially when such 
extravagant and unhistorical claims are made of the past 
as appear in other words of this same decree : 

This see of holy Peter remains ever free from all blemish 
or error, according to the divine promise of the Lord our 
Saviour made to the prince of his disciples: "I have prayed 
for thee, that thy faith fail not; and when thou art con- 
verted, confirm thy brethren." 

Summaky : The Coming Kingdom 

The Past. — To which does the past belong — Protestant- 
ism or Roman Catholicism? Which group of churchmen 
have more largely contributed to the betterment of the 
world — the reformers or those who assembled in the Council 
of Trent? Who have voiced more clearly the moral vir- 
tues, individual freedom, democratic life, life's deep obliga- 
tion to God ? Who have supported more warmly the move- 
ment of social and political reform ? Who have possessed 
the open mind, the fuller sympathy, the greater unselfish 
love? While Protestantism does not possess the whole of 
the religious triumphs of the past four centuries, a glance 
at the Catholic and Protestant countries shows which ideal 
has infused the more wholesome spirit into life. 

The Future. — To whom does the future belong? The 

326 



PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC IDEAL 

Eoman Church, in contrasting itself with Protestantism, 
boasts unity of life and harmony and positiveness of teach- 
ing ; but Protestantism, though broken up into far too many 
sects, has experienced the deeper life. Eeligion has been 
the expression of a profounder experience. A survey of 
any Romanist community reveals that religion does not, 
despite all its apparent devotion, touch so deeply the inner 
springs of life. It is quite compatible with indifference 
to moral progress, to political integrity, to social reform, to 
intellectual honesty. The religion of the future will need 
to articulate most intimately with the whole of life. As the 
two great branches of Christendom now stand, the future 
lies almost wholly with Protestantism. Its life runs nearer 
the social passions. Its vision is closer to the spiritual 
desires of Christ. 

The Appeal to Reason 

The Dignity of the Individual. — The Reformation awak- 
ened in the church a new and powerful sense of sin. It 
was a moral reaction against the profligacy of medieval 
Christianity. Protestantism in the realm of morals said 
to men and women, "You are too great to sin." In the 
realm of piety it said, "You need no priestly mediator." 
In the realm of intellect it said, "Subject all religious dog- 
mas to the reason." "Come now, let us reason together" 
is ever God's invitation to man. God invites men into the 
noblest intellectual heights to behold his face. No great 
Christianity can arise wherever the masses of the church 
are forbidden or refuse to think deeply upon questions of 
religion. 

The Message of the Prophets. — The prophetic message 
was an appeal to the reason. It lifted religion above an 
unmeaning circle of sacrifice into an ethical life. It pro- 
claimed that God cared infinitely more for justice, truth, 
and loving obedience of all the moral impulses than he did 
for the priestly spilling of the blood of cattle. "The sacri- 
fices of God are a broken spirit." The scarlet sins that 
defiled life — pride, selfishness, and lust — no unthinking 
ritual could atone. Only as man sought their death in a 

327 



APOSTLES, FATHERS, AND REFORMERS 

genuine moral fellowship with God could such evils be 
washed away. 

The Protestant Spirit. — Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, and 
Knox appeal to the reason. "Come now, let us reason to- 
gether" was their invitation to the Romanist world. Cal- 
vin's appeal to Francis I is typical of the aim of the great 
reformers to bring the church of their day to the bar of 
reason and of their belief that religion would emerge from 
that fiery bath a purer gold. It was the elevation of reli- 
gion into the thought world which made possible the tri- 
umphs of the Reformation. 

Righteousness the Evidence of Mentality. — Shallow and 
careless thinking never deals adequately with sin. Macbeth 
learned that passion and pleasure through all our yesterdays 
"have lighted fools the way to dusky death." The sinner 
lacks imagination. He has no eye for the invisible, no ear 
for the whispers of the spirit. Wickedness never imposes 
on thoughtful men its brazen crowns as golden coronals. 
Crude religion and professed irreligion alike are the chil- 
dren of shallow thinking. Opposition to Christian mis- 
sions, indifference to social reforms, discouragement in the 
face of greed, failure to tramp devotedly every trail of 
moral progress : these are to live within narrow horizons. 
Righteousness is the mark of a great mind. 

Suggestions for Class Discussion 

1. What was the essence of religion according to the great 
Hebrew prophets? Consider to what extent Protestantism 
and Roman Catholicism express their views. 

2. Where were the sympathies of Jesus: with the priestly 
or the prophetic conceptions of religion? What resemblances 
may be found between the priests of the Old Testament and 
the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church? 

3. Compare the Roman Catholic and the Protestant attitude 
toward the Bible. What is the source of religious authority 
for each? 

4. What are the distinguishing marks of the Protestant 
conception of the church? 

5. What was the immediate effect of the Protestant Ref- 
ormation upon the Roman Church? 

6. Discuss the Catholic and Protestant views of the sacra- 
ment. What is the dogma of transubstantiation? 

328 



PEOTESTANT AND CATHOLIC IDEAL 

7. Can the Roman teaching concerning saints, relics, and 
images be reconciled with the first commandment? 

8. What makes the dogma of papal infallibility obnoxious 
to Protestants? Why is it acceptable to Catholics? 

9. Which of these two great groups of Christians show 
the greater missionary zeal? interest in moral reforms? 
in education? in church loyalty? Which exhibits the greater 
democracy in church life? 

10. Name the outstanding services rendered the world by 
Protestantism; by the Catholic Church. 

11. Why are you a Protestant? What do you see in Roman 
Catholicism to admire? 

12. What effects have the divisions of Protestantism upon 
the Christianizing of the social order? To what extent will 
greater church unity among Protestants hasten the coming 
of the Kingdom? 

13. What is the probability that Romanism and Protestan- 
tism may be united again in one church? 

Beading Eeferences 

A History of the Christian Church, Walker, pages 422- 
30; 555-64. 

Outlines of Church History, Sohm, pages 179-87. 

Theological Symbolics, Briggs, pages 221-35. 

A History of Creeds, Schaff, pages 83-191. 

The Reformation in the Lands Beyond Germany, Lindsay, 
pages 484-611. 

Articles "Trent, Council of and "Roman Catholic Church" 
in Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume III, pages 
622-23; 838-43; Volume IV, pages 199-201. See article "Prot- 
estantism" in same encyclopaedia. 



329 



INDEX 



Acts of the Apostles, 132; mo- 
tive for writing of, 133 

Advance, definite stages of, 7 

Agrippa I, 63 

Angel, one in every church, 122 

Anglo-Saxon missionaries in 
northern Europe, 235 

Apologists, the, 181; pleas of, 
188; success of, 189 

Apostasy, 159 

Apostolic age, heresy in, 156 

Apostolic church, trials and 
triumphs of, 153 

Arian controversy, the, 209 

Arius, the concern of, 210 

Asia Minor, the churches of, 112 

Athenagoras, 187 

Augustine, work of, 212 

Baptism, rite of, 147 

Barbarian invasions, 230 

Barnabas, 61 

Belief, development of, 164 

Benedict, 243 

Bible, the, in human life, 282; 
Reformation made possible 
by, 283 

Bishop synonymous with dea- 
con, 143; function of, 144; 
primacy of the Roman, 218 

Bithynia, economic disturbances 
in, 89; foundations of Chris- 
tianity in, 113 

Body, resurrection of the, 81 

Book of Revelation, background 
of, 160; prophetic message of, 
161 

Books, the lure of, 137 

Brotherhood, human, 20 

Bunyan, John, 315 

Calumny, cause of, 187 
Calvin, John, 285; the father of 

French Protestantism, 286; 

source of his power, 292; in- 



fluence of in affairs of men, 
293, 308; world's debt to, 294; 
followers of, 310 

Canon, outside the, 135 

Christ, the risen, 13; revealed to 
discouraged disciples, 13; abid- 
ing presence of, 14; person of, 
154; Messiahship of, 173 

Christian literature, Jewish, 65 

Christian ministry, the, 139 

Christian witnesses, second- and 
third-century, 198 

Christianity, presentation of to 
the Jew, 47; spread of in first 
century, 112; a new social 
force in Asia Minor, 122; 
spread of aided by Greek 
language, 168; pagan ideas of, 
182-186; moral triumphs of, 
197; contact of with Greek 
thought, 208; transformation 
of, 217; identification of with 
church, 219; becomes a church, 
225; appeal of to Christian 
Europe, 229; essentially mis- 
sionary, 238 

Christians, crusades against, 258 

Church, the, 175 

Church, the, chief agent in 
propagation of gospel, 9; first 
days of primitive, 17; literary 
contribution of to the King- 
dom, 67; moral and social 
education contributed by, 68; 
attitude of, 207; identified 
with the episcopacy, 220; iden- 
tification of with Roman 
papacy, 221 

Church and the Kingdom, the, 
150 

Church builders, 226 

Church conference at Jerusalem, 
60 

Church discipline, problems of, 
79 



331 



INDEX 



Church of the circumcision, 59 

Church of the Middle Ages, 263 

Church organization in apostolic 
age, 139 

Church reforms, 308 

Citizenship, test of, 214 

Civilization, world's, 121 

Clement, epistle of, 106 

Clergy, worldly lives of the, 264 

Colossse, 120 

Coming kingdom, the, 31, 43, 
54, 67, 82, 95, 121, 136, 148, 
177, 187, 199, 214, 225, 237, 
260, 271, 282, 292, 304, 315, 326 

Common fund, the, 93 

Community, first Christian, 13; 
breach in the, 59 

Complaint against Christians, 
basis of, 90 

Congregationalism, 309 

Corinth, pagan, 72; licentious 
conditions in, 73; founding of 
church at, 73; factions in 
church at, 79; Paul's ministry 
in, 82 

Corinthians, First and Second, 
127 

Council of Constance, 265 

Council of Trent, 323 

Courtesy, false, 83 

Coverdale, Miles, 298 

Cranmer, Thomas, 301 

Creeds, the use of, 211; dog- 
matic, 214 

Critics, pagan, 192 

Cromwell, Oliver, 312 

Crusades against the Moslems, 
256; against the Christians, 
258; to increase papal power, 
259 

Crusading for the Kingdom, 253; 
for God, 261 

Crystal cup of hope, 202 

Cyprus and Galatia, advance 
into, 35, 36 

Daily bread, our, 95 

Daybreak in different lands, 263 

Depravity, native, 212 

Diana, shrine of, 88 



Diet at Worms, the, 280 
Disciples, confidence of in Christ 

restored, 13; task of the, 14 
Dispute, the, at Antioch, 60 
Distress, economic, relieved in 

church, 93 
Docetists, the, 158 
Doctrine, development of, 212 

Economic problems of early 
Christianity, 86 

Emperor worship, test of, 159 

Ephesus, antagonism at, 87; be- 
ginnings of Christianity at, 
88; the church at, 115 

Epistle to the Hebrews, testi- 
mony of, 105 

Ethical brotherhood, spirit of 
among Jewish Christians, 68 

Ethical task of Christianity, 192 

Ethics, Christian, 201 

Evangelism, fruits of, 42 

Fellowship, Christian, 148 

Fervor, religious, cruelty of, 257 

Fifth century, the, 222 

First Peter, 129 

France, beginning of, Reforma- 
tion in, 285; church organiza- 
tion in, 290 

Franks, Christianity accepted 
by, 233; church of without 
spiritual power, 234 

French Protestants, 285 

Galatia, the gospel in, 113 
Galatians, letter to, 127 
Gentile Israel, troublers of, 70 
Gentile parish, moral problems 

of, 72 
Gentile worshipers of Jehovah, 

52 
Germanic tribes, a mission to 

the, 232 
Germans, Christianizing of the, 

230 
Gnosticism, 157; failure of, 159 
God, an enlarging conception of, 

57; presence of, 293 



332 



INDEX 



God's orders, 45 

Gospel, imperialism of Christian, 

43; Gospel, the, translated, 

305 
Greek thought, 170 
Gregory the Great, Bishop of 

Rome, 223 
Growth of the Kingdom of God, 

7 

Henry VIII, 299 

Heresy, 153; in apostolic age, 

156; discussed, 165 
Heretics, crusades against, 258 
Hierapolis, 120 
Highways to the heart, 20, 21 
Huguenots, trials and triumphs 

of, 290; migrations of, 291 
Huss, John, action of, 267; life 

of, 269; teaching of, 270 

Iconium, preaching at, 37 
Ideal, Protestant and Roman 

Catholic, 319 
Ideals, imparting of, 215 
Idolatry, 91; absurdities of, 187 
Immorality, Roman, 200 
Indulgences, 255 
Infallibility, papal, 325 
Intimacy with God, 174 
Irenaeus, 218 
Ireland, Christian missions in, 

231 
Irish missionaries, the, 234 

Jail delivery, a, 42 

James, martyrdom of, 64; epis- 
tle of, 65 

Jerusalem church, later history 
of, 63 

Jesus, 173 

Jewish Christianity, factions in, 
61; vitality of lost, 64 

Jewish Dispersion, the, 167; a 
preparation for Christianity. 
168 

Jews, later preaching to, 49-51 

John, the apostle, tradition con- 
cerning, 115; Gospel of, 134 



Judaism, 18 
Jude, epistle of, 66 
Justin Martyr, 208 

Kingdom, and creed, 205 

Kingdom, the, centered in Jesus, 
19; monastic ideal of, 241 

Kingdom movements of apos- 
tolic age, 167 

Kingdom of God at work, 43; 
when overdoctrinized, 164 

Kingdom prophets, task of, 163 

Knox, John, 302 

Laodicea, 119 

Law and religion, Roman, 171 
Leaders, Christian, 176 
Leaders, first Christian, 23 
Letter writing, art of, 137 
Letters written from Rome, 128 
Life, increase in meaning and 

value of, 18 
Literature, Christian, in apos- 
tolic age, 125; necessity for, 
176 
Lord's Day, nature of service, 
146; social implications of, 149 
Love, lavish, 251 
Lycia, 114 

Lystra, 38; Paul's message at, 53 
Luke, Gospel according to, 132 
Luther, Martin, 274; excommu- 
nication of, 280 

Magnesia, 120 

Man, lowliness of, 293 

Mark, Gospel according to, 130 

Marriage, discussed by Paul, 77 

Matthew, Gospel according to, 

131 
Men, undreamed of good in, 57 
Mendicant orders, the, 247 
Message, early Christian, 47 
Messianic character and office of 

Jesus, 19 
Messianic hope, Jewish, 18 
Monastery, 244 
Monasticism, origin of, 241; 

spread of, 243; benefits of, 249 



333 



INDEX 



Military orders, the, 248 
Military religious orders, the, 

259 
Military service, 93 
Milton, John, 313 
Missionary activities in pagan 

Europe, 231 
Missionary ministry, the, 139 
Missionary torch, the, 238 
Monarchianism, 210 
Monarchical episcopate, 149 
Moral conditions in Roman 

world, 192 
Morality the end of religion, 202 

New-Testament writings, 135 
Nicene Creed, the, 206; essence 
of the, 207 

Occupations closed to Christians, 
92 

Pagan Germany, missions to, 234 

Pagan hearers, message delivered 
to, 53 

Pagan morals, Christian views 
of, 194 

Pagan theology, weakness of ex- 
posed, 187 

Paganism, conflict with morals 
of, 76; social relations with, 
78; attack upon, 186 

Pagans, papal Christianity given 
to, 237 

Pamphylia, 114 

Papacy, 225 

Pastoral epistles, the, 133 

Paul, 28-31; his new commis- 
sion, 35; return journey of, 39; 
off for Galatia, 40; relation of 
to trade and business, 45; at 
Thessalonica and Berea, 53; 
preaching of to Gentiles, 54; 
the intellectual traveler, 55; 
return of to Antioch, 61; ar- 
rival of at Corinth, 73; sails 
for Ephesus, 74; second visit 
of to Corinth, 75; his third 
visit, 75; herald of sunrise, 83; 



lectures of at Ephesus, 89; 

letter of to church in Rome, 

99; reply of to Judaizers, 99; 

his life in Rome, 102; his hope 

of liberty, 103; death of, 103; 

a poor denominationalist, 109; 

letters of, 125 
Pentecost, 16 
Pergamum, 117 

Persecutions pictured in Revela- 
tion, 121 
Peter, 23-25; second epistle of, 

65. 
Philadelphia, 119 
Philippi, 41 
Pilgrimages, 254 
Popes, wars instigated by, 258 
Preaching of the first days, the, 

47 
Predestination, 213 
Presbyterianism, 309 
Presiding officers, functions of, 

142 
Principles of highest civilization, 

177 
Property, Christian ethics of, 77 
Prophets, message of the, 327 
Protestant faith, armed defense 

of, 304 
Public worship, disorders in, 80 
Puritan, the, in England, 308. 
Puritanism, 292; characteristics 

of, 310; as a political power, 

316 

Reason, the appeal to, 327 

Redemption, 174 

Reformation, forerunners of the, 
266; discussed, 274-278; Eng- 
lish and Scottish, the, 296; 
extent of English, 300 

Religion, essence of, 320 

Religion, fundamentals of, 8; an 
impulse to moral achievement, 
83 

Religion and ethics united by 
Christianity, 82 

Religious experience, personal, 
essential, 20 



334 



INDEX 



Religious fellowship, growth of, 
17 

Religious fervor and inhumanity, 
261 

Religious orders, 245 

Resurrection of Jesus, 48 

Revelation 2. 1-7, testimony of, 
116 

Roman Bishops, claim of, 219 

Roman Christians, second gen- 
eration of, 105 

Roman Church, self-reliance of, 
109; primacy of, 218 

Roman empire nominally Chris- 
tian, 229 

Romans, letter to, 128 

Rome, Christianity in, 98; pro- 
gress of Christianity in, 99; 
triumphs at, 100; un-Pauline 
Christianity at, 101; burning 
of, 104; hostile to Christianity, 
105; types of Christianity at, 
107 

Saint Peter, chair of, 226 

Sardis, 118 

Schism, the papal, 264 

Scriptures, the, a new transla- 
tion of, 306 

Sects, origin of, 209 

Sepulcher, holy, the, 261 

Settled ministry, the, 141 

Sex, matters of, 76 

Silas, travels of with Paul, 40 

Simple life, the, 96 

Simplicity of life, emphasis upon, 
94 

Sin, salvation from, 54 

Slavery, 78; condition of ameli- 
orated by Christianity, 87 

Smyrna, 117 

Social lines, advance along, 55 

Society, a military, 253; a reli- 
gious, 253 

Sojourners at Rome, 108; perse- 
cution of, 110 



Soldier of Jesus Christ, a, 44 
Soul, windows of the, 32 
State, moral basis for, 200 
Stephen, 25-27 

Summons to witness for Jesus, 
14; to win Jews to belief in 
Messiahship of Jesus, 15 
Synoptic Gospels, the, 129 

Thyatira, 117 

Time, the fullness of, 178 

"Tongues," meaning of the, 16 

Trade guilds, importance of the, 
89 

Trades and professions repug- 
nant to Christianity, 91 

Tralles, 120 

Travelers, Roman protection of, 
171 

Troas, 41 

Truth, the triumph of, 272 

Twelve apostles, teaching of the, 
67 

Tyndale, William, 297; work of, 
298 

Ulfila, 231 

Waldensians, 266; purity of lives 

of, 267 
Wandering Jew, the, 69 
Wars of God, 260 
Witness for Jesus, summons to 

a 14 
Wittenberg, the fire at, 280 
Woman, position of, 80 
Workers, anonymous, 122 
World tolerance, Christianity's 

appeal for, 181 
Worship, 145 

Written Gospel, the earliest, 130 
Wy cliff e, John, 268; influence of, 

269 

Zeal, the religious, 257 



335 



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